Isolationism: FDR’s Immigration Crisis 

Isolationism: FDR’s Immigration Crisis 

Madison Kohlhepp

Auschwitz, Bergen-Belsen, Belzec, and Ravensbrück. Think of an ice-cold place with no hope of getting out of your worst nightmare. These were some of the most well-known labor camps during World War 2 in Germany and Poland. They were built to target many different groups, like Jehovah’s witnesses, gypsies, and homosexuals. The biggest group targeted was the Jewish population. Hitler’s goal with building these labor camps was to relocate as many Jewish people as possible and make them work to death or just to kill them, these camps were meant for mass murder. There is a lot of hidden history that is not discussed about the Holocaust.

There was a lot of blame going around and new power coming into place that America was not fully aware of because they focused on being stable after the Great Depression. In Europe tensions rose and Germany became very angry about the outcome of World War 1. Germany believed the repercussion from World War I they had gotten was not fair.  Hitler blamed the Jewish population for their loss in World War 1 and thought that they had to pay for their betrayal to the German people. Thus, sparked the idea for Hitler to create labor camps to torture and destroy the Jewish population. While the labor camps were being built there were things going on beforehand that sparked antisemitism in Germany. They had to go around wearing the star of David on all their clothing, they couldn’t go to public schools just Jewish schools, couldn’t go to the movies or to certain restaurants and a lot of Jewish business owners lost their businesses from German soldiers trashing it and shutting them down all because they were Jewish. 

Gas chambers were the kiss of death. Jews and others who made it farther would get tattoos. Jews had no name anymore and just were referred to as a number. All hair would be cut off and then would be told to change into the same striped outfits and sent to their barracks and from there they would be sent to work all day and every day with little to no food. One wrong move and anyone could be killed. Reapings would happen as well. Those who were picked were sent to either different camps or to the gas chambers to be killed. This was kept secret in Europe and only thought to be rumors for many years. Around 6 million lives were lost. 

            FDR was a great leader in so many ways and did want to help the country and the people of the United States out first and foremost. He wanted to get the country out of the Great Depression and make sure that the people were being taken care of. However, there were split sides on what the United States should have been doing during this time. Historians are still debating this topic to this day and disagree with the isolationist mindsets that were put into place and FDR should have gotten involved and helped the Jewish population more. Saying he should have done what he wanted regardless of the backlash he would have gotten from the people. The isolationist mindset and closed-door policies has been seen as something that ruined the United States because in 1941 Japan had conducted a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. That created other countries to have animosity towards the United States. Pearl Harbor ended up being the turning point for the United States to get involved in the war, leading to all of those closed-door policies to go out of the window. America was finally waking up and realizing what was going on outside of the country. 

FDR and the public

The public loved FDR. He had a great relationship with the country because they had felt like they truly knew him. This starts with his fireside chats where the country was able to listen to him and what he wanted to do for the American people. While he was their president there was his hominess about him where he became more than a president to them.  The people saw how FDR had a helping hand in the reason the country got out of the Great Depression because of his New Deal policy. The New Deal was a domestic program between 1933-1939 which aimed to provide relief and reform the people of the country.

So many lives were lost. Lives were lost because of leaders not believing the rumors of the labor camps, but also because of the restraints put on the immigration policies and visas that would have helped the immigrants trying to get into the country.  Policies have to get passed through many different levels of the government because of the checks and balances system so FDR isn’t the main source of the issue, it was the government as a whole. While the borders had been closed and not as open for quite some time, the decision to close the border angered immigrants who greatly needed help.. There was a genocide happening in Europe because of Nazi regime and the antisemitism running through Germany. America had a lot of difficult decisions to make when it came to policies and deciding what they wanted to do with the immigrants, specifically the Jewish population. America wants to be neutral, and the Jewish population was not something the country was prioritizing. From another entry that was written by FDR he states “I have no intention in getting into a war with Germany. American will not enter. (343) There was no way that FDR was going to allow American to assist with anything including with the immigrants.  The US turned an eye and the immigrants had to then go back to their countries they were trying to leave. Many went into hiding and others were captured and sent to different places, whether it be different countries or a labor camp. This did not just affect the Jewish population, it affected so many immigrants from all over and while the Holocaust as a whole killed around 13 million innocent lives, 6 million of which were Jewish men, women and children. 

At this point the country was torn on what to do. There were some groups that wanted to just get involved in the war because they didn’t want anything to happen to us because we were staying out and cutting ties with other countries. Yet there were the other groups that wanted nothing to do with the war because it was on European soil and did not concern the US in any way.  Due to this split there were discussions being had in Congress over what to do with these sets of Neutrality acts that were rolled out and how to rethink the mindsets of the isolationist. 

After the attack on Pearl Harbor it was like the United States woke up. The Japanese had bombed America’s soil and the people were shocked and distraught. This is what isolationist mindsets do, they had created enemies because with these policies the US was cutting ties with allies and countries had been trading with which was going to create conflict. We never truly had any issues with Japan until all of this happened. The immigration policies after the attack got even tighter than they were before. They truly didn’t want anyone, no matter where they were coming from, to come in and that showed because of the way they were treating the Japanese American groups in the country. However, the containment mindset and isolationism changed completely after the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. The people were angry; they wanted everyone who was on the axis side to pay for what they had just done to us, so America joined the allied powers and in 1941 America was officially a part of the war. 

The United States was involved in the war and helping out the Allied powers, men and women were being a part of the war being nurses and taking over the jobs that men were doing and in ways being a part of the war was an eye opening for what women’s roles were like showing women can do just as much as men could do. The American citizens started to speak out more about how they were feeling about the policies already in place and in the novel America Between The Wars there is a letter that gets discussed about how the American families are feeling during his time of presidency, this section shows the side of the American families that want nothing to do with the war, it states“ Dear Mr. President, my wife and I have just heard your speech over the radio, I can not refrain from expressing our deepest appreciation for your state will do everything to keep this country neutral.”(214) This was what the American citizens were thinking; however, being isolated was the wrong move for this country even though the leaders and some of the public agreed to just be focused on the country but in the end the country got attacked by enemies. The isolationism did bring harm to the country and didn’t truly help us. It made the country look weak and made the people feel divided because if the country had not been  isolated could Pearl Harbor have been prevented. While that is a question historians will never truly know it shows FDR should have listened to his heart. FDR should have focused on the people like he did but not in a containment isolationist mindset where certain events might have been avoided. 

Overall, FDR did a lot of good for the people of the country. Did he do the same for immigrants that wanted to come into the country or for the immigrants already in the country?  That is questionable. FDR did not treat the Japanese American immigrants in America right after that attack on Pearl Harbor and FDR changing his immigration quotas and rejecting the Jewish population into the country was not seen as a good move. There will always been good and bad things that any president will do but in this case things could have been different and prevented if he did what he wanted to do and stopped listening to mixed opinions of the public and his cabinet members and because of these policies and the split down the middle this caused a lot of antisemitism and hatred in the country to the Japanese Americans and to the Jewish population that were already here and or the ones who were trying to come in. 

FDR’s America with antisemitism

Antisemitism is all too well known throughout the world. Antisemitism is something that has been seen for centuries, the meaning of antisemitism is to be hostile or prejudiced against Jewish people, this has dated back to ancient times but became more seen during the time when Hitler was the dictator of Nazi Germany. The Nazi’s were corrupting the youth and they were being taught how to spot a Jew based on their eyes and hair color, their nose side, how their skull lined up etc. The antisemitism that was happening in Germany would later on during the war spread to the United States in a different way.  As mentioned before, it was antisemitism was always around but because of the increase in hate crimes and antisemitism, other countries were seeing what was really going on.

The Jewish population is one of the groups throughout history that have been blamed and have suffered for far too long. Hitlers building of the labor camps was a genocide and a way to try and erase them for good. FDR and the American population had heard word about these labor camps that were built out in Germany and Poland but had just thought they were rumors. Over in the United States, immigrants had always been coming in for quite some time from all over the world for a fresh start for their families and at the time we were a very friendly and welcoming country when it came to these matters. This had stopped for a while and had been tightened during World War I. When the Great Depression began and people were laid off from their jobs and couldn’t afford anything for their families, their outlooks on immigration started to shift. The people of the United States started to think it wasn’t fair that there were all of these immigrants coming into the country and because they had just suffered through a Depression where they could hardly afford anything that the immigrants should either go somewhere else or that America should be going from open door to a closed-door policy with self-containment and isolationism. 

From that moment on when FDR listened to the majority of the public to become self-contained and isolated matters started to get worse from the Jewish population trying to come into the country and the Jewish population that was already here in the states before the policies were put into place. Historian Breitman who has done a lot research specifically when it comes to the Holocaust and the efforts FDR had states “FDR knew that many Americans held prejudicial views of the Jews.”(5) Breitman has done a lot of research through his book to be able to make a statement like this. There were protests before WW2 was happening towards immigrants and the Jewish population because of fear. . There was an argument made my Breitman stating “ Even if FDR has been more willing to override domestic  opposition and twist arms abroad, he could not have stopped the Nazi’s in the mass murder of about six million Jews.”(5) to make this point is saying that nothing was going to change regardless of the United States changing their quotas and foreign policies to now not allowing them in wouldn’t change anything. There was nothing that could have happened from these events and issues from happening. 

Congress at that point was getting very frustrated. They were seeing the reactions from FDR and the people of the US. There was craziness because emotions were all over the place. In Texas the governor had reported “Efforts to expand Jewish immigration, he said had created a terrible anti-semetic sentiment throughout the country which might break into riots if his bills go through.”(150) The people were getting very vocal about their feelings towards immigration. FDR made a case to congress about their concerns and stated “ This would be a divide with the American people and add to widespread perceptions at home and abroad that Jews had manipulated the policies.”(207) Whether Congress believed what FDR had to say is still a mystery however, what FDR had to say about the American people  was something that was already going through the American people’s minds. 

When the rumors were going around about the labor camps in Europe the people wanted nothing to do with. The public didn’t believe that in Europe there could possibly be any chance of a genocide to a specific group of people. FDR had heard wind of these rumors as any leader would have during this time and states in one of his letters to his Secretary of State “ I do not favor American participation over this matter.”(55) The fact he was getting wind of this and still didn’t want to believe it either and was listening to the American people was an outright shock. FDR seemed to be brushing these rumors away and just wanted to continue to only focus on his isolationism and being neutral during this war.

The closing statement

While the Jewish population was living in fear not only in Germany, they had come to fear the United States. The Jewish population had thought the states would be a safe place for them to come to but when they were turned away because FDR and his committee wanted to change his foreign immigration policies that all changed. The Jewish population was happy for what FDR had done for them, they felt like they were finally able to escape the troubles they were having with the Nazi’s slowly growing to have power. However, once World War II had started those policies changed drastically. Some of those policies were not in place anymore or changed significantly. Numbers were cut by over half and so many Jewish families were sent back to Germany at the start of the war and taken to the labor camps or just killed on the spot for trying to escape. In some ways the United States did such a disservice to the Jewish population They lost all of their clothes, jewelry, houses and worst of all their identity, they were not humans anymore according to the Nazi’s.  So many of the Jewish population were killed or died of illness in those labor camps and the antisemitism that was in Germany had spread to the United States. 

The people of the United States were calling the Jewish population spies to the Nazi government thinking they wanted us to get involved in the war. That was not the case. They wanted a safe place to live where they didn’t have to fear for their lives. Some were sent back to Germany. The people did not want to believe that a genocide towards the Jews were actually happening and they wanted to live in their own happy bubble. The government did nothing to stop the hatred that had spread to the United States because it was not their issue. A little later on in the war when the Americans were on Europe soil and came across a strange looking area in the middle of nowhere was when they realized what they had just stumbled upon. The United States had to do something about this, so they sent word back to the United States and FDR declared that all of the labor camps be liberated. The anger and sadness that got back to the American people and their views on the Jewish population changed drastically. 

References

Secondary sources

Breitman, Richard, and Allan J Lichtman. 2014. FDR and the Jews. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press Of Harvard University Press.

Wayne, Cole.  1983. Roosevelt & the Isolationists, 1932-45. Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press.

Robert, Divine A. 1969. Roosevelt and World War II. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Bernard, Fay. 1972. Roosevelt and His America.

Rafael,Medoff. 2009. Blowing the Whistle on Genocide : Josiah E. Dubois, Jr. And the Struggle for a U.S. Response to the Holocaust. West Lafayette, Ind: Purdue University Press.

Primary sources 

Welky, David, 2012. America between the Wars, 1919-1941: A Documentary Reader. Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell. Harrap, and Elliot Roosevelt, The Roosevelt Letters Volume 3; 1928-1945.

President Bill Clinton – Public Vaccinations

The Impact of Economic Decisions by American Presidents Series

President Bill Clinton – Public Vaccinations

Most decisions by American presidents and other world leaders do not have an immediate impact on the economy, especially regarding the macroeconomic issues of employment and inflation. For example, President Franklin Roosevelt’s bank holiday, President John Kennedy’s tariff on imported steel, and President Ronald Reagan’s Economic Recovery Tax Act had limited immediate effects on the economy, but their long-term effects were significant. The accomplishments or problems of a previous administration may impact on the administration that follows.

For example, President Biden faced criticism about the economy during his administration. The jobs created with the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and the interest rate policy of the Federal Reserve Bank to lower inflation did not show results until years later. The drop in Real Disposable Income from the administration of President Trump is another example. Real Disposable Income is a measure of income that is adjusted for inflation. The drop between the administration of President Bident and Trump is the result of extended unemployment benefits, people working from home during the pandemic when businesses were closed, and stimulus checks from the government. The economic transition following the end of the pandemic had a significant impact on the economy.

PresidentGDP GrowthUnemployment  RateInflation RatePoverty RateReal  Disposable  Income
Johnson2.6%3.4%4.4%12.8%$17,181
Nixon2.0%5.5%10.9%12.0%$19,621
Ford2.8%7.5%5.2%11.9%$20,780
Carter4.6%7.4%11.8%13.0%$21,891
Reagan2.1%5.4%4.7%13.1%$27,080
H.W. Bush0.7%7.3%3.3%14.5%$27,990
Clinton0.3%4.2%3.7%11.3%$34,216
G.W. Bush-1.2%7.8%0.0%13.2%$37,814
Obama1.0%4.7%2.5%14.0%$42,914
Trump2.6%6.4%1.4%11.9%$48,286
Biden2.6%3.5%5.0%12.8%$46,682

This series provides a context of important decisions by America’s presidents that are connected to the expected economic decisions under the second administration of President Trump. The background information and questions provide an opportunity for small and large group discussions, structured debate, and additional investigation and research. They may be used for current events, as a substitute lesson activity or integrated into a lesson. 

In the case study below, have your students investigate the economic problem, different perspectives on the proposed solution, the short- and long-term impact of the decision, and how the decision affects Americans in the 21st century.

The Economic Problem

Public health decisions in the United States have historically been determined by states. (Tenth Amendment) Massachusetts is the first state to require that children have a smallpox vaccine before going to school to prevent the spread of smallpox in schools. Children in the United States receive immunizations through both private and public providers. The federal government has supported childhood immunization since 1963 through the Vaccination Assistance Act. Since 1994, the Vaccines for Children (VFC) program has provided additional support for childhood vaccines. In 2002, 41% of childhood vaccines were purchased by the federal government through VFC and 43% through the private sector. Thirty states have vaccine requirements for students going to college. See the list of vaccines required for K-12 schools on page 8 of the Center for Disease Control document: CDC Document

Adult immunization is primarily performed in the private sector. Since 1981, Medicare has reimbursed the cost of pneumococcal vaccine for its beneficiaries; influenza vaccine was added in 1993. The cost of vaccinations has increased significantly in the past 20 years.

The greatest fear in the 19th and 20th century was the spread of unknown or viral diseases. Major epidemics in the United States are cholera, flu, polio, HIV/AIDS, SARS, H1N1, and Covid-19. Vaccines were developed for smallpox and rabies. The virus, poliomyelitis, was a highly contagious disease with symptoms including common flu-like symptoms such as sore throat, fever, tiredness, headache, a stiff neck and stomach ache. Polio also affected the brain and spinal cord, which could lead to paralysis and also death. President Franklin Roosevelt was infected with poliomyelitis in 1921. The disease first emerged in the United States in 1894, but the first large epidemic happened in 1916 when public health experts recorded 27,000 cases and 6,000 deaths—roughly a third in New York City..

Epidemics are costly in the loss of human lives, medical and hospital costs, and absence from school and work. Because preventive health measures and vaccines save money, they are considered by economists as a public good. For example, the average billing costs for non-complex Covid-19 hospitalizations averaged between $31,000 and $111,000. Complex cases with hospitalizations averaged between $132,000 and $472,000. The average hospital cost in New Jersey for Covid-19 in 2020 was $377,198. Source

There were 6 million Americans hospitalized in 2020 with Covid-19. If we estimate the average hospitalization cost at $100,000, the cost of the epidemic would be around $60 billion. If we estimated the cost a5 $50,000, the cost would be $30 billion. The cost to the government in providing vaccines for free in 2020 was $25.3 billion. According to the National Institutes of health, the U.S. government purchased 1.2 billion doses from Pfizer and Modern at a price of $20.69 peer dose. Source. A total of $53.6 million was appropriated in 1956-57 for the polio vaccine.

Analyze the information in the image below to discuss if public health programs are best administered by the states or the federal government.

Questions:

  1. If the cost of a vaccine is $20.69, should the government pay for free vaccines for the general public or encourage people to get vaccinated at their own expense?
  2. Should the cost of vaccinations be the responsibility of private health insurance for people not covered by Medicare?
  3. Is public health a burden that should be shared by government, individuals, and health insurance companies?
  4. To protect the public from an epidemic or the flu, measles, pneumonia, etc. should the government rely on the approximately 40,000 private centers of medical offices and retail pharmacies to distribute and administer the vaccine or use the approximately 6,000 public health clinics and hospitals? Which distribution strategy is the most effective and why?
  5. Should the government encourage masks, hand washing, and other methods to prevent the spread of an epidemic instead of free or subsidized vaccinations?

Activity #1

  1. Invite the school nurse, doctor, and or representative from a health insurance company to your class to discuss the costs and benefits of vaccinations to contain the spread of epidemics.
  2. Research the policies on immunizations and vaccinations by other countries (Japan, Britain, Denmark, Mexico, Canada) Mandatory Vaccinations: The International Landscape   Mandatory Childhood Vaccinations
  3. Meet with your Math teacher to analyze the hypothetical costs of hospitalizations, preventive health care, and productivity costs for staying home from work.

Positive Externalities:

Vaccines against contagious infectious diseases have strong spillover effects, since immunization protects not just those being immunized but others as well. Since the benefits extend beyond those individuals who choose to get vaccinated, the public benefits of vaccines are larger than the individual benefits.  However, the price of the vaccine (i.e. $20) only benefits the person who paid for it out of pocket. The benefit to the public or larger society is the result when a significant majority is vaccinated and protected.

Economists evaluate the costs and benefits. For example, the government could subsidize the cost by 25% or 50%. The government (state or federal) could provide an incentive and pay individuals to get vaccinated or offer a tax credit or deduction. Public health strategies might include charging less than the market price for vaccines, paying individuals to immunize, or making immunization compulsory. The government can also mandate vaccinations by law.

The economic problem becomes more complex when we consider that some health issues like cancer, tetanus, or diabetes are not contagious. Also, vaccines for HIV/AIDS and Human Papillomavirus (HPV) benefit specific populations. The Public Health Service act of 1972 provided grants to state and local governments for immunizations and vaccine purchases. President Clinton’s administration in 1994 launched the VFC (Vaccines for Children) These provided funds to support schools requiring immunizations, with allowances for religious or moral exemptions.

View the image below from the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and validate its accuracy, bias, or misinformation.

Activity #2:

  1. Interview your school’s administration regarding the policy for vaccinations for students, teachers, and staff.
  2. Research the vaccination policy at state and private colleges in your area.
  3. Meet with a travel agent or use the source from Wikipedia regarding vaccination requirements from countries.  Source  If the United States discontinues its financial support for vaccinations will this have an impact on Americans travelling to other countries?

Questions:

  1. What is the most effective way to protect public heatlh?
  2. Are the benefits of free or subsidized vaccinations greater than the costs of hospitalization and loss of life?
  3. Should federal programs also include subsidies for preventive health such as mammograms, colonoscopies, blood pressure screening, etc.
  4. Public education is paid for by taxpayers and through money raised by state governments.  Should public health follow a similar model or is it different?
  5. Are the economic benefits of government funded vaccinations more important than the scientific evidence or the fact that they may not be effective for everyone and in some cases result in death?

President Ronald Reagan and the Economic Recovery Tax Act (Social Security)

The Impact of Economic Decisions by American Presidents Series

President Ronald Reagan and the Economic Recovery Tax Act

Most decisions by American presidents and other world leaders do not have an immediate impact on the economy, especially regarding the macroeconomic issues of employment and inflation. For example, President Franklin Roosevelt’s bank holiday, President John Kennedy’s tariff on imported steel, and President Ronald Reagan’s Economic Recovery Tax Act had limited immediate effects on the economy, but their long-term effects were significant. The accomplishments or problems of a previous administration may impact on the administration that follows.

For example, President Biden faced criticism about the economy during his administration. The jobs created with the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and the interest rate policy of the Federal Reserve Bank to lower inflation did not show results until years later. The drop in Real Disposable Income from the administration of President Trump is another example. Real Disposable Income is a measure of income that is adjusted for inflation. The drop between the administration of President Bident and Trump is the result of extended unemployment benefits, people working from home during the pandemic when businesses were closed, and stimulus checks from the government. The economic transition following the end of the pandemic had a significant impact on the economy.

PresidentGDP GrowthUnemployment RateInflation RatePoverty RateReal Disposable Income
Johnson2.6%3.4%4.4%12.8%$17,181
Nixon2.0%5.5%10.9%12.0%$19,621
Ford2.8%7.5%5.2%11.9%$20,780
Carter4.6%7.4%11.8%13.0%$21,891
Reagan2.1%5.4%4.7%13.1%$27,080
H.W. Bush0.7%7.3%3.3%14.5%$27,990
Clinton0.3%4.2%3.7%11.3%$34,216
G.W. Bush-1.2%7.8%0.0%13.2%$37,814
Obama1.0%4.7%2.5%14.0%$42,914
Trump2.6%6.4%1.4%11.9%$48,286
Biden2.6%3.5%5.0%12.8%$46,682

This series provides a context of important decisions by America’s presidents that are connected to the expected economic decisions facing our current president’s administration. The background information and questions provide an opportunity for small and large group discussions, structured debate, and additional investigation and research. They may be used for current events, as a substitute lesson activity or integrated into a lesson.

In the case study below, have your students investigate the economic problem, different perspectives on the proposed solution, the short- and long-term impact of the decision, and how the decision affects Americans in the 21st century.

President Roosevelt introduced Social Security as a transfer payment to workers who would retire at age 65 with a life expectancy of 70 years in 1940. The income of workers was taxed, and Social Security was generously funded by workers. Today, there are only two workers contributing to Social Security for every retiree receiving a monthly check. It is considered a transfer payment because the money received is spent locally on basic needs and part of the amount is taxed.

President Johnson expanded Social Security to include Medicare and Medicaid. President Reagan began taxing the benefits received, raised the retirement age to 67, and allowed for contributions from payrolls to Individual Retirement Accounts. President Trump raised the age from 70 ½ to 73 ½ regarding required minimum withdrawals from private retirement accounts.

The Economic Problem

Retirement is a relatively new concept in economic history. Social Security began in 1935, and American presidents have made significant changes to it, especially in the last 50 years. Defined pension plans were offered to employees in the first half of the 20th century but became too expensive for most corporations.  Today, many public service workers, teachers, police, fire) have defined pensions and receive a monthly distribution. Without monthly Social Security payments, it would be difficult for retired individuals to live above the poverty line.

The evolution of Individual Retirement Accounts began with President Gerald Ford in 1976, and presidents have made changes to it over the past 50 years. Most American workers have an IRA, which may be called a 401(k), 403(b), Roth or something else. Today there is $40 trillion invested in mutual funds and U.S. securities in IRA accounts of Americans. In this case study, you will analyze the economic importance of this money, which is about equal to the national debt of the United States government. Today, about 40% of American households have an IRA account. Most of the remaining 60% will depend on Social Security, personal savings and assets, or fall into poverty.

Questions:

  1. How does having approximately 8% of your paycheck withheld for Social Security and Medicare affect the economy, stock market, and the quality of family life?
  2. How do other countries provide support for their retirees?  Is it valid to compare a large country (USA) with a smaller country with a higher ranking (Denmark)?     Source
  3. If you were an economic advisor to our current president, what reforms regarding Social Security and retirement income would you suggest?
  4. What risks do current and future retirees face in the short term (next five years)?
  5. Are the options for investing in retirement accounts reasonable, too risky, or too limited?

Report on the Economic Well-Being of U.S. Households in 2023-2024

Statement on Signing the Retirement Equity Act of 1984

Activity #1: The high cost of taxes

  1. Use the table below to calculate the taxes that the average worker in the United States who owns a home pays in state and federal taxes.
ItemPercent of Taxes$100,000 Example$200,000 Example
Federal Income Taxes12%, 22%, 24%, 32%, 35%, 37%Use 12% or 22%Use 24%
State Income Taxes (NJ)3.5%, 5.5%,Use 3.5%Use 5.5%
FICA Tax with Medicare7.65%Use 7.65%Use 7.65%
Local Property Tax on a $400,000 property (varies)10%, 15%Use 10%Use 15%
Sales Tax (7% of spending)Calculate as 2% of incomeUse 2%Use 3%
NJ SUI Taxes1%Use 1%Use 1%
Total36.15% to 55.15%  
  • Compare these tax rates to those in a European country or Canada.
  • Find the average cost of what a family pays for medical insurance as a percentage of their income.
  • Deduct expenses for housing (rent or mortgage), food, vacation, medical, transportation, and savings (10%). How much is left?

Presidents and Congress Have Made Changes to Social Security Over the Decades

The Industrial Revolution sparked the first true need for retirement. Assembly lines and factories demanded constant energy from their workers. Pensions began in the 1800s for older workers to help keep productivity up. But during the Great Depression, older workers didn’t want to leave their jobs — and their paychecks — behind. In turn, FDR designed the Social Security Act, effectively birthing the Social Security program so that older Americans could retire financially. The act is the Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) and was signed in 1935 but didn’t begin payouts until 1940. In 1939, Social Security was expanded to include women. When Social Security became law, workers contributed one percent of their income.  Today, they contribute 6.2% and an additional 1.45% for Medicare. Employers match these contributions for a total of 15.3%.

As part of the “War on Poverty,” President Johnson signed the Social Security Act of 1965, which enacted Medicare and Medicaid under the Social Security Administration. In 2018, over 52 million people age 65 and older used Medicare for health insurance.

While President Reagan lowered income taxes, he was the first to make it possible to be taxed on your Social Security benefits in retirement, depending on how much you make. He also raised the full retirement age so that anyone born after 1960 would have to wait until age 67 to receive full benefits. The IRS under the Reagan administration also made it possible to have deductions taken out of employees’ salaries to contribute directly to their 401(k)s — something many workers rely on today.

President Clinton created another level of Social Security taxation, allowing up to 85% taxable benefits depending on how much you make. At the same time, he got rid of the retirement earnings test and prevented the Social Security Administration from blocking retirees from benefits based on earnings.

In 1990, the Older Workers Benefit Protection Act required employers to provide the same benefits for workers over age 65 as younger employees.

In the Unemployment Compensation Amendments of 1992, the rollover rules we know today were implemented. These new rules allowed women who often job-hop to keep their tax-qualified assets protected until retirement.

1993 ushered in the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA). This became one of the most important job protections for women after giving birth or providing care for a family member. Now, she could come back to her job and not lose her pay rate.

Although, some consider Social Security as an entitlement, it can be changed by Congress. When workers pay into Social Security, they are contributing to a trust fund instead of a personal account.

Because the combined OASI and DI Trust Funds have accumulated assets of over $2.5 trillion, the excess of program cost over current tax income will be covered by net redemption of these assets in the coming years. It is only when the reserves in the trust funds are exhausted that timely payment of full scheduled benefits becomes an issue. As shown in the chart, at the time of projected trust fund exhaustion in 2037, continuing tax revenue is expected to be sufficient to cover 76 percent of the currently scheduled benefits.

Questions:

  1. Does the Social Security treat women fairly or equally with men? Do you recommend any reforms?
  2. Should Social Security benefits be taxed or tax free?
  3. What will happen to Social Security benefits when the trust fund has insufficient funds?

Treatment of Women in the Social Security System

Senior Citizens’ Freedom to Work Act

Activity #2

  1. Research the impact of a decision by Congress to make Social Security benefits tax free. Research the impact this will have on the trust fund.
  2. How does full employment and a sustained period of high unemployment above 7% affect Social Security and Medicare.
  3. Calculate the amount of money a worker earning $100,000 pays into Medicare over a period of 40 years and the average costs of what Medicare pays for each person today. Medicare Spending and Finance
  4. How have recent reforms under President Biden affected Medicare spending?
  5. Discuss the impact of reduced Social Security benefits for people when the trust fund is depleted, around 2033.

How does Social Security Affect the Economy?

When a person receives their monthly Social Security check it is most likely deposited directly into their bank account. This allows it to earn interest immediately and to be used for expenses. Look at the Circular Flow of Money diagram below to see how government money is transferred to households and distributed through the local economy.

For example, whether a person receives a Social Security check for $1,000 or $5,000 some of the money goes to banks (financial institutions) and is used for loans to businesses, homeowners, students, etc., to purchase government bonds to support government spending (including Social Security), and for the bank to pay taxes, its employees, and operational costs. Since part of Social Security income is taxable, the federal government receives some of the money back in taxes. Perhaps the most important influence Social Security has on the economy is that people spend the money locally in supermarkets, stores, and restaurants and it saves the government money by keeping people self-sufficient and out of poverty.  This is how money circulates in the economy and creates income for businesses, local and state governments, doctors, and others.

Money also has a Multiplier Effect. The diagram below illustrates the effect of one dollar. As each dollar enters the economy through the purchase of a bagel or donut, the local store expects that sales will continue to increase. As a result, they hire an additional worker, produce more bagels or donuts, and perhaps they will open a second store. As people buy more bagels and donuts, the store needs more flour, butter, cream cheese, coffee cups, etc. The newly hired employee also receives a paycheck for their work and spends it in the community. Basically, think of money multiplying ten times. For each $1.00 spent, the multiplier effect is that it circulated to different people ten times. If the effect of $1.00 is the spending of $10.00 over a month, imagine the impact of a $1,000 Social Security check ($10,000) or a $5,000 Social Security check.

Questions:

  1. To what extent do government transfer payments (i.e., Social Security) pay for themselves?
  2. What would be the economic effect on the economy if people at the age of 67 did not receive an incentive (Social Security) to retire?
  3. Should people be allowed not to participate in Social Security as an employee?
  4. If Social Security was discontinued, would the effect on the economy be positive or negative?

Activity #3

  1.  Calculate different scenarios if a person should collect their Social Security at age 62, 67, or 70. The scenarios should include individuals who are single, married, in excellent health, divorced, collecting benefits while still working, and for a spouse who did not work and make FICA contributions for the required ten years. Benefit Calculator

How do Private Individual Retirement Accounts Affect the Economy?

According to the Investment Company Institute, “there are more than 710,000 plans, on behalf of about 70 million active participants and millions of former employees and retirees. Savings rolled over from 401(k)s and other employer-sponsored retirement plans also account for about half of the $13.6 trillion held in individual retirement account (IRA) assets as of December 31, 2023.” https://www.ici.org/401k ($13.6 trillion is approximately 1/3 of the federal debt)

The IRA, originally offered strictly through banks, become instantly popular, garnering contributions of $1.4 billion in the first year (1975).  Contributions continued to rise steadily, amounting to $4.8 billion by 1981.

The Economic Recovery Tax Act (ERTA) of 1981 allowed for the IRA to become universally available as a savings incentive to all workers under age 70 1/2.  At that time, the annual contribution limit was also increased to $2,000 or 100% of compensation.

With the passage of the Tax Reform Act of 1986, income restrictions were introduced, limiting the availability of deductible contributions to the TIRA for individuals with incomes below $35,000 (single) or $50,000 when covered by an employer plan.  In addition, provision was made for the Spousal IRA, wherein the non-working spouse could make contributions to a TIRA from the working spouse’s income. 

1996’s Small Business Job Protection Act saw the implementation of the Savings Incentive Match Plan for Employees (SIMPLE IRA), which provided for employer matching and contributions to the employee plans, a viable alternative in many cases to the 401(k), although with more restrictive contribution limits. 

With the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997, the Roth IRA was introduced.  In addition, phase-out limits were increased, plus the distinction was added for limits on deductible contributions if the taxpayer was covered by an employer-provided retirement plan. The Education IRA was also introduced, with features similar to the Roth IRA (non-deductible but tax-free upon qualified distribution).

In 2001 the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act (EGTRRA), increased contribution limits with a “catch-up” provision for taxpayers aged 50 and older. An additional provision was the option to convert funds from a Traditional IRA to a Roth IRA, regardless of income level. 

The Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2016 finally made Qualified Charitable Distributions (QCDs) permanent. This feature applies to individuals age 70½ or older and subject to Required Minimum Distributions. The Qualified Charitable Distribution allows direct distributions to charitable organizations (houses of worship, non-profit organizations, etc.) from their IRAs without having to include the amount of the distribution in gross income for the tax year. In 2019, the age for Required Minimum Distributions was changed to age 73½.

As of the most recent reports from 2021, the Investment Company Institute indicates 37% of all American households own an IRA account of some type (over 48 million households). Approximately 27.3 million households have a Roth IRA, holding roughly $1.3 trillion in assets, while traditional IRA are owned by 36.6 million households, holding approximately $11.8 trillion.

Questions:

  1. How will the taxes paid by retirees on their IRA distributions affect the federal budget and national economy?
  2. How does the flow of money from current workers contributing to their Individual Retirement Accounts affect investment firms and the stock market?
  3. Should Social Security and Individual Retirement account changes be allowed or should changes only apply to people who are working and not retired?
  4. Should anyone not participating in the labor force because they are caring for someone in their home be allowed to contribute to Social Security or an Individual Retirement Account?
  5. Should money in an IRA account be allowed to be deposited in a traditional bank savings account of CD that is insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation?
  6. Should Individual Retirement Accounts replace Social Security for anyone who has not started paying FICA taxes?

President Richard Nixon – Price Controls and Ending the Gold Standard

The Impact of Economic Decisions by American Presidents Series

President Richard Nixon – Price Controls and Ending the Gold Standard

Most decisions by American presidents and other world leaders do not have an immediate impact on the economy, regarding the macroeconomics of employment and inflation, at least in the short term of their administration. For example, President Franklin Roosevelt’s bank holiday, President John Kennedy’s tariff on imported steel, and President Ronald Reagan’s Economic Recovery Tax Act had limited immediate effects on the economy but their long-term effects are significant. The accomplishments or problems of the previous administration will likely impact the administration that follows. For example, President Biden faced criticism about the economy in his administration but the steps taken to address them may not show results until years later. The drop in Real Disposable Income from the administration of President Trump is significant because it measures income after taxes and inflation.

PresidentGDP GrowthUnemployment RateInflation RatePoverty RateReal Disposable Income
Johnson2.6%3.4%4.4%12.8%$17,181
Nixon2.0%5.5%10.9%12.0%$19,621
Ford2.8%7.5%5.2%11.9%$20,780
Carter4.6%7.4%11.8%13.0%$21,891
Reagan2.1%5.4%4.7%13.1%$27,080
H.W. Bush0.7%7.3%3.3%14.5%$27,990
Clinton0.3%4.2%3.7%11.3%$34,216
G.W. Bush-1.2%7.8%0.0%13.2%$37,814
Obama1.0%4.7%2.5%14.0%$42,914
Trump2.6%6.4%1.4%11.9%$48,286
Biden2.6%3.5%5.0%12.8%$46,682

This series provides a context of important decisions by America’s presidents that are connected to the expected economic decisions facing our current president’s administration. The background information and questions provide an opportunity for small and large group discussions, structured debate, and additional investigation and research. They may be used for current events, as a substitute lesson activity or integrated into a lesson.

In the case study below, have your students investigate the economic problem, different perspectives on the proposed solution, the short and long term impact of the decision, and how the decision affects Americans in the 21st century.

The Economic Problem:

  1. The world’s economy collapsed as a result of World War I. The Bretton Woods Agreement provided stability with a fixed exchange rate of $35 U.S. dollars to an ounce of gold. The strength of the U.S. dollar and economy was good for the United States and other countries. In fact, the gold of most countries was at the Federal Reserve Bank in New York, so it was easy to physically move gold from one vault to another. The Marshall Plan provided $13.3 billion (about $175 billion in today’s money) to rebuild Europe. The Bretton Woods Agreement supported a global economy and international trade and cooperation.
  • By 1960, the U.S. economy began facing new challenges from the Baby Boomers, national debt, Cold War, trade deficit, higher unemployment and inflation. Economists introduced new research on the economy. The ideas of John Maynard Keynes that were seen as helpful to the challenges of the Great Depression and World War II were questioned in the 1960s by Milton Friedman and Paul Samuelson and other economists who carefully followed the money supply in the economy. In response to the cost of the Vietnam War and the Great Society programs, in addition to the increased consumption of the Baby Boomers, the interest rate policy of the Federal Reserve Bank supported an increase in dollars.
  • President Richard Nixon understood the political implications of the U.S. economy. Although an inflation rate of 4.7% may not appear to be a concern, it is an increase of 50% from the expected rate of 3% and a GDP growth rate of 2%. When President Nixon became president ever nation wanted dollars. The amount of dollars in circulation increased to four times the amount of gold in reserves. As aa result the dollar was overvalued and very strong. This situation negatively impacted our balance of trade with other countries. In 1971, the United States reported its first trade deficit.
  • As the supply of dollars increased over the quantity of gold, the United States Treasury feared that countries might ask for their gold and the United States would not be able to meet their demands. As inflation increases, the purchasing power of the dollar decreases. A simple solution would be to devalue the dollar but since it was pegged to gold at $35 an ounce, this was not possible. The situation became critical in 1971when Britain requested selling $3 billion dollars it had from a trade surplus for gold. The United States only had about $10 billion in gold and if other countries asked for gold, there would be an international crisis.

Activity #1 – The Strong Dollar:

Examine the graph below for the years 1950-1970. Calculate the percent decline in the purchasing power of the dollar.  How does a weaker dollar affect trade and the national economy?  What are the advantages and disadvantages of a stronger and weaker dollar?

Activity #2 – The Weaker Dollar

Examine the data in this chart, especially for the years, 1960-1980. The amount of gold reserves (left axis) is constant but the value of the dollar changes. Which events in the 1960s likely affected the weakening of the U.S. dollar? Which decisions or events in the 1970’s contributed to the noticeable decline in the dollar. How does a weaker dollar affect the economy differently for consumers and investors?

Solutions to the Problem:

President Lyndon Johnson responded to the ‘small’ (18%) decrease in the value of the dollar in 1968 with a temporary (one-year) surcharge of 10% on income tax payments. The purpose of the additional tax was to reduce or stabilize the 3.0 percent rate of inflation. Even with the surcharge, inflation increased to 4.7% within the year. On August 25, 1969, the federal funds rate was at 9.75%, the highest level since World War 2, about seven percent above the GDP growth rate, and will cause an economic recession. The economic advisors, including Arthur Burns, Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank, informed Nixon that the traditional monetary and fiscal policy tools were not working, President Nixon extended the tax surcharge through 1970. With the presidential election in 1972, Nixon knew that he needed to control the rising rate of inflation and avoid causing a recession.

President Nixon called for a secret meeting at Camp David to address this problem. He knew that politically the need to make a bold decision, like FDR with the decision to close the banks in March 1933. He also wisely sought the perspectives of economists with different points of view.

On August 15, 1971, President Nixon addressed the nation from the Oval Office with his historic decision, Executive Order 11615:

  1. Wage and price controls for 90 days
  2. Ending the Bretton Woods Agreement on converting dollars to gold
  3. 10% surcharge tax on tariffs

The Fed Funds rate in August 1971 was at 5.75% about three percent higher than the GDP rate of growth. One of the objectives of the “Nixon Shock” was to force other countries, especially China, to revalue their currencies to allow for a competitive free trade market for the United States. The stock market jumped 4% on August 16, but the decision to allow gold to be bought and sold at the market would lead to an unexpected increase in the price of oil. The wage and price controls and tariff surcharge were lifted by the end of 1971 but making the U.S. dollar the reserve currency of the world had lasting implications for the economy. President Nixon won the 1972 election by a landslide but the negative effects of then Nixon Shock would return in 1973.

Activity #3 – Interviews/Oral History:

Invite students to interview senior citizens who will have different perspectives as investors, bankers, union workers, homeowners, etc. on the “Nixon Shock.” For example, I was a high school teacher in New York City earning $5,500 a year. Prices were high from inflation and I was looking forward to a 20% salary increase, about $1,000, on September 1, 1971. My 1969-70 salary was frozen as was the pay scale for another year.  In 1973, the price of gasoline increased from 39 cents a gallon to more than 60 cents and gas was rationed. Although the energy crisis was the result of an embargo by OPEC against the United States for our support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War. After the embargo was lifted the higher cost of energy continued contributing to unemployment and continuing inflation. This became known as stagflation.

History of the Gold Standard

Activity #4 – The Popularity of Credit Cards:

Gather information about the new technologies of how credit cards, money markets, and currency swaps increased personal spending, consumption, and the velocity of money.

  1. How did the banking industry change to ‘create’ new money in the economy?

In the chart below, currency represents coins and dollars, what we call cash.

M1 money represents currency plus money in a checking account which can quickly be exchanged for cash.

M2 money represents money that requires going to the bank tor waiting more than one month to convert the money to cash. (i.e. certificate of deposit)

  • Calculate the slope of the graph in dollars and also by the annual percentage change.
  • How did this contribute to inequality, consumer debt, and inflation?
  • What is the difference between installment credit and revolving credit?
  • How did the credit card change our standard of living?
  • What were the consequences of higher unemployment and full employment?
  • How did two income households affect the supply of money?

The Evolution of Consumer Credit in America

Activity #5 – Worker Productivity:

  1. What information is provided in the graph?
  2. What are several reasons for an increase in productivity by workers?
  3. How can high school students become more productive in their social studies class? (i.e. better grades, complete additional assignments and projects)
  4. Should a worker be paid on the amount of work they produce or on the wage they agreed to when they were hired? Should a teacher be paid based on the output (grades) of the students in their classes?
  5. Why do the red and blue lines diverge after 1970? Why is there a significant gap between what workers are producing in one hour and what they are paid?

How did taking the U.S. Dollar off the gold standard affect the economy?

The immediate impact of separating the value of the dollar from a fixed exchange rate of $35 was that the new value increased by 10% to $38 an ounce. It took about four years for the global economy to stabilize and accept dollars as the reserve currency (or safety net) in the event of a crisis. The supply of gold increased significantly after 1971 with about half of the current supply of gold being mined since the ‘Nixon Shock’.

  1. How do countries buy dollars? How does this affect our economy?

Major Foreign Holders of U.S. Treasury Securities as of April 2024

Source:

  • Is it possible for foreign countries to have too many U.S. dollars?
  • How would the decision of other countries to adopt a different currency affect the economy of the United States?
  • If a group of countries made a secret agreement to sell their U.S. dollars in a short period of time and purchase euros or the renminbi instead, how would the United States economy be affected?
  • What is the future of the dollar as the reserve currency? Does the United States have more advantages than disadvantages of being the dominant economic power in the world? The Dollar: The World’s Reserve Currency

President Bill Clinton – Tariffs and Free Trade Agreements

The Impact of Economic Decisions by American Presidents Series

President Bill Clinton – Tariffs and Free Trade Agreements

Most decisions by American presidents and other world leaders do not have an immediate impact on the economy, regarding the macroeconomics of employment and inflation, at least in the short term of their administration. For example, President Franklin Roosevelt’s bank holiday, President John Kennedy’s tariff on imported steel, and President Ronald Reagan’s Economic Recovery Tax Act had limited immediate effects on the economy, but their long-term effects are significant. The accomplishments or problems of the previous administration will likely impact the administration that follows. For example, President Biden faced criticism about the economy in his administration, but the steps taken to address them may not show results until years later. The drop in Real Disposable Income from the administration of President Trump is significant because it measures income after taxes and inflation.

PresidentGDP GrowthUnemployment RateInflation RatePoverty RateReal Disposable Income
Johnson2.6%3.4%4.4%12.8%$17,181
Nixon2.0%5.5%10.9%12.0%$19,621
Ford2.8%7.5%5.2%11.9%$20,780
Carter4.6%7.4%11.8%13.0%$21,891
Reagan2.1%5.4%4.7%13.1%$27,080
H.W. Bush0.7%7.3%3.3%14.5%$27,990
Clinton0.3%4.2%3.7%11.3%$34,216
G.W. Bush-1.2%7.8%0.0%13.2%$37,814
Obama1.0%4.7%2.5%14.0%$42,914
Trump2.6%6.4%1.4%11.9%$48,286
Biden2.6%3.5%5.0%12.8%$46,682

This series provides a context of important decisions by America’s presidents that are connected to the expected economic decisions facing our current president’s administration. The background information and questions provide an opportunity for small and large group discussions, structured debate, and additional investigation and research. They may be used for current events, as a substitute lesson activity or integrated into a lesson.

In the case study below, have your students investigate the economic problem, different perspectives on the proposed solution, the short- and long-term impact of the decision, and how the decision affects Americans in the 21st century.

The Economic Problem

Students in your class are likely familiar with mercantilism and its benefits to the “mother country” or “home country”. 18th century mercantilism utilized the resources and cheaper labor of colonies or other places to the benefit of one country. Adam Smith challenged the benefits of mercantilism and advocated laissez-faire economics, the balance of supply and demand, and open markets. Smith believed that mercantilism was a self-defeating system that limited economic growth and national wealth. He argued that a free-market system and free trade would produce true national wealth. 

However, political leaders may not agree (or understand) economic theories or how economic systems work. In Washington’s administration, Secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton argued for a tariff. His Report on Manufacturers argued for the protection of the new manufacturing sector of the United States (Paterson and the Great Falls) and having a tariff to raise revenue for the federal government. Hamilton compromised on his tariff plan and the Tariff Act of 1789 was only 5%.

Henry Clay’s American System supported tariffs to protect our economic growth from foreign imports. His speech in 1824 was the first attempt to make America self-sufficient and independent of other countries. In 1828, Congress passed the Tariff of Abominations which led South Carolina to pass the Nullification Act.  The Tariff of 1828 set a 38% tax on some imported goods and a 45% tax on certain imported raw materials.

Questions:

  1. How was the American System designed to work?
  2. What impact did the American System have on the U.S. economy during the early to mid-1800s?
  3. Did the American System benefit each region equally or did some regions have an advantage?
  4. How did the American System set the stage for the Industrial Revolution and sectionalism?
  5. What lessons should have been learned from the Tariff of 1828?

In the chart below, use the data beginning in 1800 with the Per Capita Income (per person) set at 200. This number indicates that the per person income from 1700 to 1800 doubled. Next, examine the indicator in 1850, which is set at 220. This indicates that the per person income increased only 20% in the fifty years since 1800. This is less than one-half percent per year on average.

Next, compare the date on tariff rates in the graph above with the per capita income rates in the graph below. Do tariffs impact economic growth?

At the beginning of the 19th century, the United States was a rural and agricultural country. Our nation’s population was small compared to Britain and France and scattered over a large area. Our population was 5.3 million in 1800, compared to Britain’s 15 million and France’s 27 million. Tariffs from Britain and France were high and significantly made the price of imported goods in the United states high.

After the War of 1812, the American economy began to grow. The development of steamboats, canals, railroads and the telegraph reduced costs and made communications faster. The growth of cities created markets for industrial goods. New inventions increased agricultural production and textile manufactures.  Children, immigrants, and women provided affordable labor.  Source

Activity #1

Discuss and debate the role of the federal government in the economy.

Do tariffs support or restrict economic growth?

Does free trade support or restrict economic growth?

Why do you think Britain lowered tariffs after 1828 and France did not?

Is economic growth dependent on the age, health, and skills of the labor force?

Is economic growth dependent on the infrastructure of a country to facilitate the distribution of goods and services?

How can governments best distribute wealth equally in the economy?

Do national leaders have any significant influence on economic growth?

How did the stock and commodities markets provide money (capital) for economic growth?

After the Civil War, the United States experienced unprecedented economic growth with the Industrial Revolution, imperialism, and immigration. The use of greenbacks and silver provided capital, cities provided markets for stores, immigrants provided affordable labor, and new technologies increased productivity and the efficient distribution of goods and services.

The beginning of a market exchange for bonds, agricultural products, and stocks developed with the Buttonwood Agreement in Manhattan. Stockbrokers and merchants met under the Buttonwood tree to sign an agreement that established the foundation for the New York Stock Exchange. The building with the flag is the Tontine Coffee House, where stocks were eventually traded.

The Mohawk & Hudson Railroad Company was the first railroad stock listed on the NYSE in 1830. At that time, the Exchange was called the New York Stock & Exchange Board. Banks and steel foundries were also listed. Mercantile exchanges for agricultural products provided guidance on the future demand for wheat, rice, tobacco, cotton and other products. These investments supported economic growth more than the protectionism of tariffs.

The flow of international capital into the United States provided capital for the Industrial Revolution that followed the Civil War. The market cap/GDP ratio tripled from around 15% in the 1860s to 50% by 1900. The inflation in the United States that occurred after World War I, World War II and the Vietnam War reduced the relationship of the market cap/GDP ratio and slowed the rate of economic growth. After each of these inflationary cycles, a return to higher tariffs to limit cheaper imports from other countries was the solution proposed by political leaders.  Economists, Joseph Schumpeter, Friedrich Hayek, John Maynard Keynes and Milton Friedman advocated for lower tariffs, innovation, and entrepreneurs to promote economic growth. The ratification of the 16th amendment and the adoption of the income tax in the United States undermined the argument that tariffs were necessary to fund the government and to protect industries from foreign competition.

President Hoover signed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act in 1930 raising the tariff by an average of 20% to protect American farmers from the effects of the stock market crash. The tariff caused trade between Europe and the U.S. to decline by two-thirds. At the end of World War II, tariffs were decreased substantially, and the U.S. supported the establishment of the World Trade Organization, which has sought to promote the reduction of tariff barriers to world trade.

Questions:

  1. Does the public or private sector have the greater influence on economic growth and stabilizing inflation?
  2. What can be done to limit the effects of business cycles leading to inflation and unemployment?
  3. How effective are tariffs, embargoes, and sanctions in getting leaders of countries to negotiate or change their policies to align with the interests of the United States?
  4. Under what circumstances might tariffs be justified or effective?
  5. Examine the graph below to determine the biggest employer in the United States.
  • What conclusions can you make about the largest private employers in each state from the map below?

RWJBarnabas Health is the largest private employer in New Jersey, with 31,683 employees. Healthcare is a major employer in the state, accounting for 16% of all jobs. Who is the largest private employer in your county?

Activity #2:

Use the chart below to compare the change in prices for an automobile before and after a hypothetical tariff of 20%. Because automobiles have thousands of parts and assembling an automobile often occurs in different countries, a tariff has the greatest impact on new cars.

Interview a local car dealer in your community about how a tariff will affect their business and how they plan to respond with sales, rebates, reduced financing, layoffs of workers, etc. Also ask about how a tariff will affect parts, tires, and the repair or maintenance of automobiles.

Make a list of five or more other businesses in your community that import supplies from other countries. (phones, Dollar Stores, coffee, clothing, TV monitors, etc.) If possible, research or interview the manager of a local big box store (Walgreens, Target) about how a tariff will affect their business.

Create a graphic design or flow chart to illustrate how the effect of higher prices from tariffs will affect consumer spending. For example, if prices increase by 20% and salaries increase by 5%, how will this affect businesses and households? Higher prices from tariffs are considered inflationary and layoffs from reduced sales are considered recessionary. Discuss what the short-term impact (three years) will be on the economy and your family.

The Movement Towards Free Trade Agreements

In 1951, six countries (France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg) agreed to sell coal and steel to each other without tariffs. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) established a single common market. In 1957, the European Economic Community (ECC) was created by the Treaty of Rome. The six countries that formed the European Coal and Steel Community agreed to trade additional goods without tariffs, to work together on nuclear power plants for energy, and to form a parliament. In 1992 the Maastricht Treaty was signed by 12 countries leading to the European Union and a common currency, the euro, in 1999. The euro was fully implemented by 2002.

President Clinton’s administration signed the North American Free Trade agreement with Mexico and Canada in 1993 (it became effective on January 1, 1994) removing tariffs between these countries. The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (T-TIP) is a trade and investment agreement currently being negotiated between the United States and the European Union. This agreement will allow American families, workers, businesses, farmers and ranchers through increased access to European markets for Made-in-America goods and services.

In 2020, the Conservative Party in Britain convinced the people to leave the European Union (Brexit).  The United Kingdom was the second-largest economy in Europe, its third-most populous country, and one of the largest contributors to the budget of the European union.  In January 2024, an independent report by Cambridge Econometrics claimed there were two million fewer jobs, and the prices of essential goods were higher. As a result of Brexit, the average citizen (per person) lost about 2,000 pounds and someone living in London about 3,400 pounds as a result of leaving the common market.

It is difficult to assess the impact of NAFTA on the United States because of currency value fluctuations, trade with China, the impact of technology, the relocation of some corporations, and the values placed on agricultural products.  The Center for Economic and Policy Research estimated in 2014 a decline from a surplus of $1.7 billion to a deficit of $54 billion. The data in the graphs below suggest a positive trade balance with Canada and Mexico over the past 30 years. (1994-2022) Mexico, Canada, and China are the three major trading partners with the United States.

In the graph below there is a slight increase in exports from the United States to Mexico and exports with Canada continue at 15%. Exports to China had a significant drop of about one-third.

Data Reflecting the new USMCA ratified in 2019.

Activity #3

Maple syrup, pine lumber, and cranberries are a few items in our homes that are likely imported from Canada under NAFTA or the new USMCA. Lululemon and Blackberry are brands from Canada. Appliances, automobiles, tomatoes, avocados, electronics, monitors are some items from Mexico.

Identify items in your home with labels from Mexico and Canada, interview merchants in supermarkets and department stores, and conduct research to identify the importance of trade between the United States, Canada, and Mexico.

Develop a position statement or a short paper explaining your opinion on tariffs and free trade agreements to stimulate economic growth and stabilize inflation.

Book Review: The Spirit of New York: Defining Events in the Empire State’s History

The Spirit of New York: Defining Events in the Empire State’s History (2nd ed., SUNY Press, 2022)

by Bruce W. Dearstyne

This book presents an overview of New York history in the form of 20 exciting, engaging stories. These include, for instance, the beginning of New York State with the completion of the first state constitution in 1777; the “Anti-Rent Wars” in the mid-Hudson region in the 19th century when tenant farmers fought for the right to buy and own their own land; the Seneca Falls’ women’s right convention in 1848, which launched the demand for women’s right to vote and legal equality; and Syracuse citizens’ rescue of a fugitive slave from a marshal who sought to return him to slavery in 1851.

The book describes the campaign against child labor in 1903; the work of pioneering New York aviator Glenn Curtiss, the inventor of several modern airplane flight controls and the first to fly down the Hudson River in 1910; Jackie Robinson’s debut as the first Black major league baseball player in 1947; the construction and opening of the State Thruway in 1954; and the debut of the hit musical, Hamilton, in 2015, and the history behind the events it presents. The narrative for each chapter is woven around what led up to a key event, what happened, and what the results were. The book’s stories feature first-hand, eyewitness accounts by history-makers, participants and observers at the time. The author calls this “a scholarly book for a popular audience.” Because of New York’s historical importance, many of the stories have relevance to American as well as New York history. Social studies and history teachers can use the stories in the book as the basis for their classroom presentations and for study, essays, and discussion by students.

Book Review: Once We Were Brothers

Once We Were Brothers: A Novel, by Ronald H. Balson, 2013.  New York: St. Martin’s Griffin.

Review by Thomas Hansen, Ph.D.

This is yet another wonderful book with great writing and captivating action—but it is a book  about a terrible story.  It describes the close friendship between a German/Polish Christian boy who is raised by a Jewish family in a small village in Poland.  The time is World War II, and the story is based on–and connects to–historical points of the time.

It is said to be a book that is “hard to put down.”  Indeed, it is.  Balson’s first novel, this book contains good writing, suitable pacing and forward movement, plus a lot of information about what was happening in rural Poland in that period.  There is also some direct teaching involved, with characters explaining what certain terms meant and what various Nazi policies entailed.

The book consists mainly of flashbacks to what was happening in Poland among the families and friends of Ben Solomon, the Jewish boy whose life is at the center of the story.  Chicago readers will be interested to know that the modern-day sections include scenes from Winnetka, the Loop, and the lakefront also.  

The book is a novel, with a huge amount of factual and historical foundation.

It dovetails into Common Core Standards college-readiness levels and college-use levels also.

I will recommend the book, but I remind readers that many of the scenes described and the action discussed will not be at all pleasurable.  Like many stories of the Holocaust, this one is very disturbing yet one which we must read, discuss, and remember.  

The book should be required reading for college students–in any major–and good for educators to read also.  As always, educators should read the book closely to see if there are passages inappropriate for younger readers.

Book Review: Human Geography: A Concise Introduction

Human Geography: A Concise Introduction, by Mark Boyle.  Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 2015, paper, 318 pages.

By Thomas Hansen, Ph.D.

This is a very interesting book because it is not from mainstream sources and is not a traditional format text.

This is a textbook meant for college and university courses within the United Kingdom, but the book can be used as a textbook anywhere, good background reading, and interesting data for writing social studies units and lessons in K-12 classrooms.  Meant for a semester-long course, the book includes major points in history to illustrate what human geography is.

As in most of my reviews, I try not to give away all of the content and key ideas in the review.  I talk more in this particular review about the overall approach of the book, some interesting features and themes, my personal reaction, and some possible uses for the book.  I begin here by discussing how the book’s author sets up the discussion.

The author uses a historical approach in discussing human geography and this is mirrored in the way the book is organized—from the beginnings of civilization and the notion of what geography is.  The vocabulary and basic concepts of the subject are presented in the first chapter.  

There are 12 chapters, including a wide range of watershed events, natural disasters, migration, changing economies, and our current understanding of geography.  Each chapter begins with a table of contents and a list of learning objectives.  Each chapter ends with a conclusion of the most important points made, a bank of three essay questions, and references for further reading of what was found in the chapter.  The format of the chapters could be helpful for students seeking lots of clarity in their reading. 

One thing that really stands out in the book is the use of the “zoom-in boxes.”  These are similar to sidebars, but they take up sometimes a full page or more than one page of text, stories and examples related to whatever the information is they interrupt.  The problem is, there are so very many of them that they are aggravating.  Right in the middle of a section on a given topic or subtopic, there is some discussion of how something is an example of X.  When faced with these,

I did not know if I should stop reading the chapter and read the zoom-in box instead, or read for a while and come back to it.

The zoom-in box phenomenon was a very strange aspect of the book for me.  Perhaps this sort of zoom-in box is a tradition in some fields, or in some lands, but it was something I did not ever get used to.  I did not know how to incorporate them into the flow of what I was reading.  Maybe the use of the zoom-in box is aimed at readers with short attention spans?

Another noticeable aspect of the book for me was the persistent theme of the West having imposed its will so strongly worldwide that this has resulted in a strong and pervasive clash of cultures noticeable around the globe (e.g., p. 99).  This sentiment appears throughout the book and is also spelled out at several points.  Readers will see it early on, and they will draw their own conclusions from it.

In responding to this text, I must admit I enjoyed very much the topics and discussion of the different themes and components of what makes geography work.  Aside from the strange tone of the book, and the zoom-in boxes, I got a great deal out of reviewing this topic—one I have always felt is greatly slighted in schools. 

I remember in my own case studying geography in elementary school—we had a book on it one year!  In high school, I took a course on physical geography—in addition to taking French, German and Spanish language courses.  A survey course on cultural geography was one of the very first electives I took in college.  I went on to study several other world languages in college. 

Of course, in studying about other languages and cultures, a knowledge of geography is essential.  Therefore, I do not need to be convinced it is an important topic for study.   

I would recommend the book to give teachers of social studies, world languages, and other subjects a different perspective and a way to connect history and geography.  It is always interesting to me to see how books are laid out in other countries and learn from different points of view.  This is good material for a teacher’s professional library, and the book can also be used to help inform and design units for the classroom. 

Because the book is too long for a short professional development session, it fits more in the category of resource and reference material for teachers of cultural and world-focused subjects. 

Human Geography: A Concise Introduction, by Mark Boyle.  Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 2015, paper, 318 pages.

By Thomas Hansen, Ph.D.

This is a very interesting book because it is not from mainstream sources and is not a traditional format text.

This is a textbook meant for college and university courses within the United Kingdom, but the book can be used as a textbook anywhere, good background reading, and interesting data for writing social studies units and lessons in K-12 classrooms.  Meant for a semester-long course, the book includes major points in history to illustrate what human geography is.

As in most of my reviews, I try not to give away all of the content and key ideas in the review.  I talk more in this particular review about the overall approach of the book, some interesting features and themes, my personal reaction, and some possible uses for the book.  I begin here by discussing how the book’s author sets up the discussion.

The author uses a historical approach in discussing human geography and this is mirrored in the way the book is organized—from the beginnings of civilization and the notion of what geography is.  The vocabulary and basic concepts of the subject are presented in the first chapter.  

There are 12 chapters, including a wide range of watershed events, natural disasters, migration, changing economies, and our current understanding of geography.  Each chapter begins with a table of contents and a list of learning objectives.  Each chapter ends with a conclusion of the most important points made, a bank of three essay questions, and references for further reading of what was found in the chapter.  The format of the chapters could be helpful for students seeking lots of clarity in their reading. 

One thing that really stands out in the book is the use of the “zoom-in boxes.”  These are similar to sidebars, but they take up sometimes a full page or more than one page of text, stories and examples related to whatever the information is they interrupt.  The problem is, there are so very many of them that they are aggravating.  Right in the middle of a section on a given topic or subtopic, there is some discussion of how something is an example of X.  When faced with these,

I did not know if I should stop reading the chapter and read the zoom-in box instead, or read for a while and come back to it.

The zoom-in box phenomenon was a very strange aspect of the book for me.  Perhaps this sort of zoom-in box is a tradition in some fields, or in some lands, but it was something I did not ever get used to.  I did not know how to incorporate them into the flow of what I was reading.  Maybe the use of the zoom-in box is aimed at readers with short attention spans?

Another noticeable aspect of the book for me was the persistent theme of the West having imposed its will so strongly worldwide that this has resulted in a strong and pervasive clash of cultures noticeable around the globe (e.g., p. 99).  This sentiment appears throughout the book and is also spelled out at several points.  Readers will see it early on, and they will draw their own conclusions from it.

In responding to this text, I must admit I enjoyed very much the topics and discussion of the different themes and components of what makes geography work.  Aside from the strange tone of the book, and the zoom-in boxes, I got a great deal out of reviewing this topic—one I have always felt is greatly slighted in schools. 

I remember in my own case studying geography in elementary school—we had a book on it one year!  In high school, I took a course on physical geography—in addition to taking French, German and Spanish language courses.  A survey course on cultural geography was one of the very first electives I took in college.  I went on to study several other world languages in college. 

Of course, in studying about other languages and cultures, a knowledge of geography is essential.  Therefore, I do not need to be convinced it is an important topic for study.   

I would recommend the book to give teachers of social studies, world languages, and other subjects a different perspective and a way to connect history and geography.  It is always interesting to me to see how books are laid out in other countries and learn from different points of view.  This is good material for a teacher’s professional library, and the book can also be used to help inform and design units for the classroom. 

Because the book is too long for a short professional development session, it fits more in the category of resource and reference material for teachers of cultural and world-focused subjects. 

Human Geography: A Concise Introduction, by Mark Boyle.  Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 2015, paper, 318 pages.

By Thomas Hansen, Ph.D.

This is a very interesting book because it is not from mainstream sources and is not a traditional format text.

This is a textbook meant for college and university courses within the United Kingdom, but the book can be used as a textbook anywhere, good background reading, and interesting data for writing social studies units and lessons in K-12 classrooms.  Meant for a semester-long course, the book includes major points in history to illustrate what human geography is.

As in most of my reviews, I try not to give away all of the content and key ideas in the review.  I talk more in this particular review about the overall approach of the book, some interesting features and themes, my personal reaction, and some possible uses for the book.  I begin here by discussing how the book’s author sets up the discussion.

The author uses a historical approach in discussing human geography and this is mirrored in the way the book is organized—from the beginnings of civilization and the notion of what geography is.  The vocabulary and basic concepts of the subject are presented in the first chapter.  

There are 12 chapters, including a wide range of watershed events, natural disasters, migration, changing economies, and our current understanding of geography.  Each chapter begins with a table of contents and a list of learning objectives.  Each chapter ends with a conclusion of the most important points made, a bank of three essay questions, and references for further reading of what was found in the chapter.  The format of the chapters could be helpful for students seeking lots of clarity in their reading. 

One thing that really stands out in the book is the use of the “zoom-in boxes.”  These are similar to sidebars, but they take up sometimes a full page or more than one page of text, stories and examples related to whatever the information is they interrupt.  The problem is, there are so very many of them that they are aggravating.  Right in the middle of a section on a given topic or subtopic, there is some discussion of how something is an example of X.  When faced with these,

I did not know if I should stop reading the chapter and read the zoom-in box instead, or read for a while and come back to it.

The zoom-in box phenomenon was a very strange aspect of the book for me.  Perhaps this sort of zoom-in box is a tradition in some fields, or in some lands, but it was something I did not ever get used to.  I did not know how to incorporate them into the flow of what I was reading.  Maybe the use of the zoom-in box is aimed at readers with short attention spans?

Another noticeable aspect of the book for me was the persistent theme of the West having imposed its will so strongly worldwide that this has resulted in a strong and pervasive clash of cultures noticeable around the globe (e.g., p. 99).  This sentiment appears throughout the book and is also spelled out at several points.  Readers will see it early on, and they will draw their own conclusions from it.

In responding to this text, I must admit I enjoyed very much the topics and discussion of the different themes and components of what makes geography work.  Aside from the strange tone of the book, and the zoom-in boxes, I got a great deal out of reviewing this topic—one I have always felt is greatly slighted in schools. 

I remember in my own case studying geography in elementary school—we had a book on it one year!  In high school, I took a course on physical geography—in addition to taking French, German and Spanish language courses.  A survey course on cultural geography was one of the very first electives I took in college.  I went on to study several other world languages in college. 

Of course, in studying about other languages and cultures, a knowledge of geography is essential.  Therefore, I do not need to be convinced it is an important topic for study.   

I would recommend the book to give teachers of social studies, world languages, and other subjects a different perspective and a way to connect history and geography.  It is always interesting to me to see how books are laid out in other countries and learn from different points of view.  This is good material for a teacher’s professional library, and the book can also be used to help inform and design units for the classroom. 

Because the book is too long for a short professional development session, it fits more in the category of resource and reference material for teachers of cultural and world-focused subjects. 

Human Geography: A Concise Introduction, by Mark Boyle.  Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 2015, paper, 318 pages.

By Thomas Hansen, Ph.D.

This is a very interesting book because it is not from mainstream sources and is not a traditional format text.

This is a textbook meant for college and university courses within the United Kingdom, but the book can be used as a textbook anywhere, good background reading, and interesting data for writing social studies units and lessons in K-12 classrooms.  Meant for a semester-long course, the book includes major points in history to illustrate what human geography is.

As in most of my reviews, I try not to give away all of the content and key ideas in the review.  I talk more in this particular review about the overall approach of the book, some interesting features and themes, my personal reaction, and some possible uses for the book.  I begin here by discussing how the book’s author sets up the discussion.

The author uses a historical approach in discussing human geography and this is mirrored in the way the book is organized—from the beginnings of civilization and the notion of what geography is.  The vocabulary and basic concepts of the subject are presented in the first chapter.  

There are 12 chapters, including a wide range of watershed events, natural disasters, migration, changing economies, and our current understanding of geography.  Each chapter begins with a table of contents and a list of learning objectives.  Each chapter ends with a conclusion of the most important points made, a bank of three essay questions, and references for further reading of what was found in the chapter.  The format of the chapters could be helpful for students seeking lots of clarity in their reading. 

One thing that really stands out in the book is the use of the “zoom-in boxes.”  These are similar to sidebars, but they take up sometimes a full page or more than one page of text, stories and examples related to whatever the information is they interrupt.  The problem is, there are so very many of them that they are aggravating.  Right in the middle of a section on a given topic or subtopic, there is some discussion of how something is an example of X.  When faced with these,

I did not know if I should stop reading the chapter and read the zoom-in box instead, or read for a while and come back to it.

The zoom-in box phenomenon was a very strange aspect of the book for me.  Perhaps this sort of zoom-in box is a tradition in some fields, or in some lands, but it was something I did not ever get used to.  I did not know how to incorporate them into the flow of what I was reading.  Maybe the use of the zoom-in box is aimed at readers with short attention spans?

Another noticeable aspect of the book for me was the persistent theme of the West having imposed its will so strongly worldwide that this has resulted in a strong and pervasive clash of cultures noticeable around the globe (e.g., p. 99).  This sentiment appears throughout the book and is also spelled out at several points.  Readers will see it early on, and they will draw their own conclusions from it.

In responding to this text, I must admit I enjoyed very much the topics and discussion of the different themes and components of what makes geography work.  Aside from the strange tone of the book, and the zoom-in boxes, I got a great deal out of reviewing this topic—one I have always felt is greatly slighted in schools. 

I remember in my own case studying geography in elementary school—we had a book on it one year!  In high school, I took a course on physical geography—in addition to taking French, German and Spanish language courses.  A survey course on cultural geography was one of the very first electives I took in college.  I went on to study several other world languages in college. 

Of course, in studying about other languages and cultures, a knowledge of geography is essential.  Therefore, I do not need to be convinced it is an important topic for study.   

I would recommend the book to give teachers of social studies, world languages, and other subjects a different perspective and a way to connect history and geography.  It is always interesting to me to see how books are laid out in other countries and learn from different points of view.  This is good material for a teacher’s professional library, and the book can also be used to help inform and design units for the classroom. 

Because the book is too long for a short professional development session, it fits more in the category of resource and reference material for teachers of cultural and world-focused subjects. 

Book Review: The Children of Willesden Lane: Beyond the Kindertransport—A Memoir of Music, Love, and Survival,

The Children of Willesden Lane: Beyond the Kindertransport—A Memoir of Music, Love, and Survival, by Mona Golabek and Lee Cohen, 2002. New York: Grand Central, Paper, 272 pages.

Reviewed by Thomas Hansen, Ph.D.

The Children of Willesden Lane is based on the true story of the pianist Lisa Jura, a Jewish girl from Vienna, who was sent by her parents to England where she was supposed to be assisted by a cousin there during the time of the Kindertransport, the program sending children out of Austria and Germany to safety. The book is written by her daughter, Mona, who reports on what was happening in Vienna after the Annexation.

When Lisa arrives in England, the cousin who is supposed to house and feed her reneges on the agreement. This leads her to the hostel on Willesden Lane where she and a score of other Jewish children from various countries in Europe form bonds, become strong, and face with dignity and perseverance a very uncertain future.

Lisa fights hard to get her older sister to England, enlisting the help of the other children in the facility to find a sponsor for her. Lisa herself is protected by the woman running the hostel, and Lisa becomes a leader of the other youngsters. Lisa’s father is a tailor, and he has taught her how to use a sewing machine. Because of this, she is hired right away to work in a factory making trousers. Her income helps support the hostel.

A musician, Lisa is faced with a lifetime of servitude until she has some decent breaks because of the woman in charge of the hostel and others who are pulling for her. She is allowed to audition for a scholarship to study classical music.

Teachers, writers, and musicians will appreciate this book because it tells of worlds that sometimes can only be imagined. I was able to understand most (not all!) of the technical information about music here because of my mother filling our home with melodies—and constant discussion of music theory. I too studied the piano, but alas I was not meant to be a pianist!

Lisa perseveres in the story. She fights hard to practice for the scholarship, at the same time she works making uniforms in the factory.

The human spirit is so strong. I am always amazed by this fact.

Lisa’s story is a beautiful one. It includes such hope and so much good news. The story also includes some bad news, however, because of what is happening in Europe with the war and all of Hitler’s policies uprooting and destroying entire threads of history, family ties, destiny of entire peoples, and freedom.

It is freedom itself that is at the core of the themes in this book. Losing freedom and gaining freedom are two of the biggest events we can experience as thinking persons.

Book Review: A Hudson Valley Reckoning: Discovering the Forgotten History of Slaveholding in My Dutch American Family

A Hudson Valley Reckoning: Discovering the Forgotten History of Slaveholding in My Dutch American Family

by Debra Bruno (Three Hills, 2024)

Reviewed by Imani Hinson

For many, slavery in the North is nothing but a long-ago memory, a story that is often untold due to the cruelties of enslavement in the South and the long-lasting impact of enslavement in the Southern part of the United States. The general public is not always aware of the enslavement of African people in the North with only recent discoveries being brought to light. A Hudson Valley Reckoning: Discovering the Forgotten History of Slaveholding in My Dutch American Family showcases the stories of enslaved people who lived in Greene County, New York. The author, Debra Bruno, offers a new perspective on the enslaved in New York by exploring her own lineage and that of a distant cousin named Eleanor.

In this thirteen-chapter narrative, Bruno tells the story of her slave-holding Dutch family and the connection between her relatives and those who they might have enslaved. Eleanor is a descendant of the individuals whom Bruno’s family enslaved. Bruno discusses how historians, politicians, journalists, and every day people have erased significant features of enslavement in the North and painted a quaint picture of enslaved people helping the Dutch with their farms, houses, and livestock. Bruno, however, provides a much clearer picture of the reality of slavery in Dutch New York. She visited Macon, Georgia, and Curacao as she dug deeper into her family’s history.

In the introduction, Bruno describes her upbringing and the proud nature of her family’s Dutch heritage. She draws the reader in by describing her hometown of Athens and Coxsackie, places located along the Hudson River. Her American family began with Lambert Van Valkenburg, who settled in New Amsterdam in the early 1600s and later sold this land relocated on the North River, now the Hudson River. Her ancestor originally owned land in New Amsterdam where the where Empire State Building is located.

While digging into the history of her family, Bruno decided to explore whether they were enslavers. Bruno used Ancestry.com where she found various records including newspaper clippings, census data, photographs, and wills. Valkenburg did not provide significant results, so she searched under Collier, her grandmother’s family name. Bruno found a will from what would be her Great Grandfather five times back. He had many children and grandchildren around the Coxsackie area and left a will bequeathing much of his property to them. As Bruno combed through the pages of the will she saw it, “detailed like inventory along with his property and cows were slaves” (6).

Chapter four illustrates enslavement in the North with an analysis of a painting. “Van Bergen Overmantel” was commissioned by the Van Bergen family in the early 1700s to hang in the family home. It depicted what life was like in 18th century Hudson Valley and “is the first visual evidence of slavery on a New York farm” (56). According to Bruno, in 1714 Coxsackie’s population was 21% enslaved people. and by the 1790s in places such as Brooklyn, New York that number went up to 30%. In the late 18th century New York had an enslaved population of 319,000 enslaved people.

In the following chapters Bruno describes the challenges she faced in finding sources from the enslaved that could detail what their life was like on these farms. She notes that they were threatened with being sold down South or the Caribbean, some ran away killing their masters in the escape, and these details just go to show that enslaved life in the North was not a cakewalk as some may think. Even after being emancipated, African Americans still struggled in New York as they fought their right to be citizens and gain full citizenship rights as discussed in chapter nine.

In a discussion of why this history was so important to recover, Bruno emphasized that the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, the nation’s founding documents, not grant the same freedoms to all people living on this land, and that individuals must “accept that only some people have benefited from their promises. To deny that and to distance ourselves from that truth is to misunderstand how our county grew, prospered, and exists today” (233.