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Engaging K-6 Students in History: The Nutley History Fair

Hank Bitten,Executive Director, New Jersey Council for the Social Studies

The Nutley Academic Booster Club (ABC) (http://www.nutleyabc.org/) provides an opportunity for students in their K-6 elementary schools to participate in a science and history fair in alternating years each March. The article below reflects on my observations as a judge in the 2018 History Fair for K-6 students. I judged the student entries for Grades 4 and 6.

The History Fair is held in the high school gymnasium with tables for students in each grade to display their research based projects. Students arrive before 9:00 a.m. to setup their displays with their parents and program begins at 10:00 a.m. with judging the K-1 and 2-3 students. Judging for the students in grades 4-6 begins at 11:30 a.m. and the program ends by 2:00 p.m.. The rubric allocates the majority of points on an interview with students about their research and knowledge of their topic:

• Understanding and Clarity (30%)
• Historical Content (30%)
• Creativity (30%)
• Technical Skills (10%)

There are two teams of judges who interview each student. The students have an opportunity to engage in a conversation for about ten minutes with the judges about their project, what they learned, their research, and why their subject is important to world history, American history, New Jersey history, or local history. Exhibits include posters, demonstrations, media, and experiments.

Some of the exhibits I judged were on the history of ballet, gymnastics as an Olympic sport, the life of Katherine Johnson, Sally Ride, the inventions of Thomas Edison, the history of Lego, the culture of death in China, Brazil, and Africa, the Aztec civilization, Anne Frank, and the architecture of the Taj Mahal. At several exhibits, the students were dressed in historical era clothing or as a gymnast, ballerina, or entrepreneur.

Parents are permitted to guide their children and work with them on their project but each student must explain the story and historical information on their own. The Nutley Academic Booster Club (ABC) recognizes the top three student winners in each grade and there is a public recognition at a later date. All students receive certificates.

Research for young students leaves a positive impact and nurtures their interest and engagement with history as they are talking about their topics with their families for several weeks, learning how to make an abstract topic into a visual presentation, understanding the importance of asking questions, using print and non-print resources, books and websites, interviews and museum resources, and speaking with adults about what they learned.

In the gym, the Nutley Historical Society has displays of local history, including information about the public schools, teachers and relatives observe and take hundreds of pictures, and there is plenty of food and fun contributing to this memorable experience. Even though only a few students in each grade receive one of the top three awards (there were 21 prizes for about 100 entries), every student developed a special and positive relationship with their person or historical event.

Consider planning a history fair program in your school or public school district!

This Is How You Get Gun Control

Bruce W. Dearstyne
The New York State Office of State History and the State Archives
Reprinted with permission from the History News Network

“We are losing our lives while the adults are playing around,” Cameron Kasky, a survivor of the Marjorie Stoneman Douglas High School shooting said on CNN’s “State of the Union” program a few days later. It was a wrenching reminder of how long politicians have ducked responsibility for curbing killers using assault rifles.

We have reached a critical point in our history when students need to implore lawmakers to protect them from gunfire in their own schools.

President Trump’s endorsement of stronger background checks and raising the age to purchase guns seem like positive steps. But his – and the NRA’s – proposal to arm classroom teachers raises the specter of gunmen armed with assault rifles shooting it out with classroom teachers armed with handguns.

The nation needs common-sense gun control that is compatible with the Second Amendment.

The story of the Sullivan Gun Control Act, passed by the New York State legislature in 1911, is worth studying for insights into how public pressure and political leadership could produce what is needed.

By the early 20th century, many New York political leaders, newspapers, and individual citizens were concerned with rising gun violence, particularly in New York City. Several factors aligned to escalate and transform that concern into support for gun control legislation.

Shooting a mayor provokes public outrage

On August 9, 1910, New York City Mayor William J. Gaynor was waiting to board a ship for a trip to Europe. He was suddenly approached by James J. Gallagher, who had been discharged from his position as a New York City dock night watchman for dereliction of his duty earlier in the year. Gallagher’s repeated appeals to the mayor for reinstatement had gotten no results.

Gallagher shot the mayor in the neck and also wounded the city sanitation commissioner who was there to see the mayor off. A New York World photographer happened to be there for what he had assumed would be a routine photo of the mayor. Instead, he snapped a picture of a bloodied Gaynor reeling from the shot. The photo made the front pages of city newspapers and was widely reprinted. It was a graphic representation of the horror of gun violence.

Gaynor survived but the bullet lodged in his neck and could not be removed. It caused him pain and discomfort until his death in 1913. Gallagher insisted that his being fired justified his assault on the mayor and that shooting public officials was defensible “if you have a grievance and can’t right it any other way.” He was sentenced to 12 years in prison and died there in 1913.

Killing a prominent writer provokes even more outrage

David Graham Phillips was a prominent New York City novelist in the early 20th century. On January 23, 1911, Fitzhugh Coyle Goldsborough, an eccentric violinist and music teacher, walked up to Phillips on the sidewalk near Gramercy Park. People standing nearby heard him cry out “I’ve been waiting for six months to get you” and then “Here you go!” as he shot the novelist five times. He then muttered “Here I go!” before shooting and killing himself. Phillips died of his wounds the next day.

Police searched Goldsborough’s apartment; from diaries and papers they learned he had become obsessed with one of Phillips’ novels, The Fashionable Adventures of Joshua Craig. He believed it drew on Goldsborough family history, portraying it in an unflattering way. Goldsborough also believed Phillips could read his mind. Actually, Phillips’s novel was complete fiction rather than based on any actual people. Press accounts concluded Goldsborough was mentally deranged. The shootings of Gaynor and Phillips escalated public demand for gun control.

A coroner presents data

Support for gun control also came from an unlikely source, the New York City coroner’s office. George LeBrun, a senior administrator in the office, complied annual reports on deaths in the city in the early 20th century. The report released in January 1911 documented an alarming rise in gun-related killings. Gun violence was reaching epidemic levels. “The increase of homicide by shooting indicates the urgent necessity of the proper authorities taking some measure for the regulation of the indiscriminate sale and carrying of firearms,” the report insisted. “ The press picked up the sense of alarm, for instance, in a New York Times article on January 30 entitled, “Revolver Killings Fast Increasing.”

A politician takes the lead

Timothy Sullivan, a Democratic state senator from the Bowery area of Manhattan, was shocked at the Gaynor and Phillips shootings. But he was even more alarmed about a rising tide of gang-related shootings in his own district.

Sullivan, often known by his nickname “Big Tim,” was a no do-gooder reformer. He was a Tammany Hall regular who was involved with gambling, prostitution, and corruption. But he was also genuinely concerned with the welfare of his constituents. Tammany Hall itself was becoming more reform-minded.

Sullivan introduced a bill in the 1911 legislature to require licenses issued by judges or police for New Yorkers to possess firearms small enough to be concealed. Possession of such firearms without a license would be defined as a misdemeanor, and carrying one without a license was defined as a felony. Sellers were required to keep records of firearms transactions. The bill had other provisions as well.

Sullivan explained that there were three types of “gun toters.” The first category was professional criminals. The second consisted of people who were deranged or committed gun violence in fits of rage. His law would help in both those areas, he said.

But Sullivan said he was more concerned with a third category: “young fellows who carry guns around in their pockets all the time not because they are murderers or criminals but because the other fellows do it and they want to be able to protect themselves…. [T]hose boys aren’t all bad but … just carrying their guns around makes them itch to use them.”

Public opinion pressures the legislature

Sullivan’s bill was opposed by some gun owners and gun manufacturers. One upstate legislator told Sullivan that “your bill won’t stop murders. You can’t force a burglar to get a license to use a gun.” Others warned that criminals would get guns from other states.

But opponents were overshadowed by the voices of citizens who were fed up with gun violence, particularly people in New York City. Sullivan capitalized on public sentiment.

“This is a bill against murder,” he insisted in an impassioned plea for his bill in the Senate on May 11.

He pointed out that gun control was supported by oil magnate John D. Rockefeller, department store owner John Wanamaker, several other wealthy and prominent New Yorkers, the city police department, and a number of judges. Law enforcement officers spoke out in favor of Sullivan’s bill. New York County Republican District Attorney (later governor) Charles Whitman said that “carrying a weapon is an invitation to a crime. Reduce the weapons carried and you will reduce crimes of violence. There isn’t any debating that point.” Public opinion swung behind the proposed legislation.

Bipartisan support for the bill

Democrats controlled the legislature but Sullivan lobbied his colleagues on both sides of the political aisle to support his bill. It came to be viewed as a bipartisan measure. Legislators, sensing public outrage at gun assaults, expressed support. After all, who wanted to be seen as opposing something that promised to save people’s lives? The Sullivan Act passed easily, garnering 46 of 51 votes in the Senate and 148 out of 150 in the Assembly, with both Democrats and Republicans in support. Democratic governor John A. Dix signed it into law. It took effect at midnight on August 31, 1911.

Insights from history

Critics soon charged that the law was selectively enforced, with police targeting immigrants and minority groups and planting guns on people they wanted to arrest for other reasons. It was challenged in court but upheld. Its impact on reducing gun-related crime has been questioned. As Patrick Charles explains in his new book, Armed in America: A History of Gun Rights from Colonial Militias to Concealed Carry, its passage inspired organized resistance to gun control in other states. But its basic provisions are still in place.

The Sullivan Act is not perfect by any means, but its passage sent a message that New Yorkers were determined to curb gun violence. The history of its passage offers three insights for today.

• One, high-profile killings shock people into demanding action.
• Two, public pressure is needed to get legislation passed, but in turn, the public’s perception is shaped by the media and political leaders who frame the issue and insist on action.
• Three, compromise is possible. The Sullivan Act does not prevent people from getting concealed weapons, but it does require them to go through a process to do so.

Responses to Bruce Dearstyne

Nicole Waid, SUNY Oneonta, responds: The debate over the regulation of firearms has risen in intensity since the mass shooting that occurred February 14th at Marjory Stoneman Douglas School in Parkland, Florida. The nation perpetually grapples over the intent of the 2nd Amendment right to bear arms. Some believe the right to bear arms is something that should never be curtailed. Others feel that the founders could have never envisioned the technological advances that would make firearms more efficient and deadly. As the nation processes mass shootings in schools the debate, there is a range of solutions offered ranging from thoughts and prayers to enhanced background checks and banning assault-style weapons. The discourse between the different factions of politicians supported by the NRA and people who want sensible gun control measures to protect students in schools becomes a counterproductive cycle. The Marjory Stoneman Douglas shooting seems to have something different which previous school shootings did not have. The children who lost their lives in Columbine did not have social media capabilities to speak out about the school shooting. The children who perished in the Sandy Hook school shooting were young elementary students, so they were not able to advocate for themselves. The Marjory Stoneman Douglas students, in contrast, are well-educated students with capabilities to disseminate their message about the need for gun control measures on social media. The Marjory Stoneman Douglas students have been thrust into the spotlight and sparked a nationwide movement to protest gun violence with a series of marches across the nation. The students had a well-defined set of objectives and tried to advocate for themselves when lawmakers have failed them. There has been considerable blowback on these students becoming targets of pro-gun activists, and the NRA. The students who are speaking out are accused of being coached by MoveOn.org and George Soros. The reality of the situation is that the students had effective social studies teachers who explained Constitutional principles to them and how they apply to their everyday lives.

Simon Burke a transplanted American living in Paris comments: “In a modern society where it seems to be easier for the bad guys to get guns than it is for the good guys (this excludes law enforcement), the only logical solution I see to end gun violence is to remove guns from general circulation. Basically, a ‘no badge no gun’ policy. Sure, exceptions for those living in rural areas needing firearms could be argued (defense against wild animals, limited to bolt-action/barrel breaching weapons, etc.), but what real-life use do automatic and concealed weapons have for civilians? None whatsoever. Australia, a country with striking social, economic, and historical similarities to the U.S. banned guns in the mid 90’s. Guess what? zero mass shootings since. I think a case study of Australia’s gun policy could be interesting. Other countries’ policies could be explored as well, but I think Australia is particularly interesting because of the similarities between our two countries.”

Carolyn Ramos: Purchasing weapons should be banned to anyone who is not properly trained or educated. That legislatures are considering arming teachers is absolutely outrageous. As an educator in an early childhood program, I would never want my own students to fear me because I carry a weapon. There are thousands of under-funded public schools in this country. Schools need new books, new desks, smart boards, laptops, tablets, and supplies, not teachers with guns. Is this country telling our children that violence is the only way to solve our problems? That shooting is the only alternative here?

Bar Hidden Weapons On Sullivan’s Plea New York Times, May 11, 1911.ALBANY, May 10. —

In spite of opposition from manufacturers of firearms, the Senate to-day passed Senator Timothy D. Sullivan’s bill restricting the sale and use of dangerous weapons. Only five Senators voted against the measure after the Bowery Senator had made a characteristic appeal in its favor.The Sullivan bill makes the carrying of concealed weapons a felony, requires those using revolvers and small arms to obtain licenses from police Magistrates, and provides for the registration by dealers in firearms of all persons who buy revolvers or similar weapons. Senator Ferris, the only member who spoke in opposition, offered an amendment removing the licensing feature. This, he said, was unworkable and would prove a hardship to those who desired to have pistols in their homes for their protection.“Have you a gun factory in your district?” Senator Sullivan asked of Senator Ferris, who represents Oneida County. “There is a factory there,” was the reply. “Would you oppose this bill if that were not so?” “That fact is not my reason for opposing the bill in its present form,” Senator Ferris said. “Your bill won’t stop murders. You can’t force a burglar to get a license to use a gun. He’ll get one from another state.”“I want to make it so the young thugs in my district will get three years for carrying dangerous weapons instead of getting a sentence in the electric chair a year from now,” said Senator Sullivan. “The manufacturers oppose my bill because they know that if we pass it other States will follow suit.”

Policy Analysis as an Exit Criteria:

The Case of the Participation in Government Research Paper in New York State

Nancy Hinkley, Cornell University & Casey Jakubowski,

State University of New York-Albany

Imagine the most difficult task you have faced in your life. For many students, writing an essay is one of the most challenging undertakings of their school academic career. Imagine that essay is then morphed into a research paper, a required hurdle for graduation. That is the reality facing students in New York State schools. In this reflective essay, two experienced teachers, one social studies, and one special education, examine issues created by the capstone research report for students with a learning disabilities in a rural high school setting.

Background

In the early part of the 2000s, we were paired instructors in special education mainstream inclusion classes in a small, rural, upstate school district in New York. The school district is classified as rural under the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) coding. In order to protect confidentiality, we do not identify the specific school district. New York State classifies the district as a high needs district to the resources it can generate. Over half of the students in the district are considered living in poverty based upon the federal Free and Reduced Lunch rate. The district has a students with disabilities classification rate between 10-20 percent. The district’s graduation rate for students with disabilities is between 40-60 percent. The district has had some struggles, with declining population, damage due to natural disasters, and a poor economic outlook as major employers have left the area. Students and families within this area tend to be transient, moving between neighboring districts with frequency.

Nancy has over 20 years of experience in education, while Casey was in the early stages of his career. Both of the instructors have a keen interest in social studies, and were paired in a Global History and Geography class for 10th grade students. Both teachers hold certifications in social studies for New York State. Collaboration efforts extended beyond regular co-teaching assignments. One target focus was the 12th grade students assigned to the state mandated Participation in Government class. Casey was the primary instructor of record, while Nancy was the special education department’s case manager for the students and had resource room/ consultation functions for more than 20 seniors that academic year. Nancy had noticed a number of seniors were struggling with the capstone paper requirement for the Participation in Government class. Nancy asked Casey to visit the resource room and add content specific guidance to students, as he was the instructor of record for the class. Both instructors noticed a number of roadblocks to the successful completion of the capstone paper requirement for Participation in Government.

We wanted to relate this story to social studies teachers, as well as special education professionals in light of the increased rigor and alternative pathways for graduation now available to students in high school. With programs such as New Visions in Government, and the Board of Cooperative Education Services (BOCES) based programs in New York State, we hope that the requirements for graduation via the Participation in Government course is accessible to students with disabilities. The high stakes testing which has traditionally kept students from graduating, namely the Global History and Geography exam, has been shortened. In light of recent political occurrences, it is especially important for students to understanding the basics of citizenship and participation. In the next section, the authors describe the research paper requirements necessary for graduation.

Research paper requirements

The research paper is a capstone requirement in the New York State Social Studies scope and sequence for our particular district. The research paper asks students to select a public policy issue and research it. Research involves discovering historical background on the policy issue. The policy issue can be local, countywide, state level, or national in nature. The paper requires students to research the alternatives to the policy. The paper should provide alternatives in support and opposition to a proposed policy solution. Usually the requirements for the public policy research paper are set locally. The teacher or the department will establish minimum length requirements for the paper, the number of sources required, and if graphs or charts are required. Usually, the public policy paper is structured as a semester long assignment for the students in the senior year Participation in Government class. The course included readings from Coplin & O’leary (1988) as the core textbook. The ½ credit course is one semester in length. For many teachers, the frustration that students experience while completing the paper has resulted in the creation of a step by step guide to the research and writing process that the student must undertake as they develop this final, culminating project for their social studies career. The step-by-step manual is an attempt by schools to scaffold the research requirements into manageable sections during the semester. This follows best practice advice on how to teach adolescents to write (Graham & MacArthur, 2013).

The step by step guide is divided into parts that are the foci of the writing stages for the paper. Usually the completed packet is submitted along with the final paper to the teacher at the end of the semester. The stages of the packet begin with the selection of a public policy problem that the student can select. In some schools, the teacher or department may provide the students with a list of topics This part of the packet may involve having students explore some initial encyclopedia/ internet search level examination of their potential topics. Usually the teacher will require the students to submit three potential topics with a justification about why those topics were selected.

The second stage of the process is the initial research part of the paper. After students have selected topics that can be researched, the packet will then require students to provide at least three to five sources, properly cited using MLA style citations, and at least two quotes per source. The thinking behind this strategy is encouraging students to learn how to properly identify sources and cite quotes. Usually at this stage, the teacher will pair with the school or community librarians to work with students on the research aspect of the paper. This section of the package is then expanded to ask students to look at multiple types of sources, including books, articles, internet databases and other sources that may be encountered in undergraduate research papers.

The third stage of the packet involves having students contact public officials to conduct interviews or communicate in the form of a letter or e-mail exchange. During this period, students who have been keeping up with the efforts are finding the paper beginning to coalesce around their selected topic, and the research helps inform the creation of questions. In some schools, the students may be asked to conduct surveys within the school or community to gauge public opinion on the public policy issue. This process requires students to research, on a lower level, surveys and types of questions that will help in the public policy issue process.

The fourth stage of the paper process is the crafting of the actual paper. Students are led through writing exercises in order to craft topic sentences, supporting detail sentences, and paragraph structure. This part of the public policy research packet will ask students to submit draft paragraphs to the teacher in order to receive feedback on the structure, grammar, and progress of the research paper. As many researchers have found, students find writing difficult, and students with difficulties find this stage of the process extremely difficult.

The fifth stage of the public policy research paper is the verbal presentation to the class. Students are expected to prepare a five to ten minute presentation about their public policy issue, the alternatives, and their recommendations for the policy issue. Students are encouraged to use PowerPoint or other presentation software to enliven the presentation. The teacher and classmates may ask questions that the student will need to answer. For students who have difficulty with verbal communication, this can be a difficult process.

Comparisons across the state

How do schools across New York State handle the Participation in Government capstone course? The answer is it varies from district to district.

From Casey’s personal experience, graduating from a suburban Western New York school district which sent a number of students on to four year colleges, a research paper was required. The class needed to select a public policy issue and discuss its root causes and implementation strategies.

When Casey worked at a small Western New York rural district, there was no paper required for the course. Students there were expected to take quizzes, discuss current events and pass a final exam. This 50 question multiple choice exam covered material presented in class and via lecture.

During visits to 15 high schools with ‘accountability status’ between 2007-2013, only one required a research paper, and that research paper was reserved for the Advanced Placement and Syracuse University Project advance sections of the participation in government classes. In the other classrooms, current events binders, issues presentations, and campaign posters were most often used as methods to check for understanding. Many of the teachers, when asked about their Participation in Government courses felt they needed to educate students about the basics of voting and the basics of local government. In poorer areas, there was often a focus on interactions with police, the courts, and with student’s personal experiences in the local enforcement system.

In one large urban district in New York State, the policies for participation in government vary across schools and teachers. In this district, the Participation in Government teachers are often assigned last minute, and are rated on the Annual Professional Performance Review for students in the Global History or United States history classes. The department meetings in this district, as well as the district wide professional development often focus on the middle and high school levels, specifically the Regents tested curriculum.

Surveying the online syllabus of 30 districts across New York State, in 2017, we discovered that most classes required a project for a passing grade, but almost none of the syllabus required a policy analysis paper like what was required for our student. The syllabus were gathered as follows: five from the western New York area, five from the central/ southern tier area, five from New York City, five from Long Island, 5 from the Capitol/ Adirondack region, and 5 from the Finger lakes region.

We have often thought there are some serious issues that should be considered in the design of a course at the high school level that required students to write a research paper. Yes, we admit that it is an important and relevant skill for students to acquire before college. The Common Core Learning Standards (NGA, 2010) for writing do require students to become proficient in writing research papers as part of the expectations adopted by the Board of Regents. The New York State Social Studies Frameworks adopted in 2014 (NYSED, 2014) contain the social studies practices, which reference the ability of students to convey knowledge in written form. We have often asked ourselves if there is an alternative to the social studies research paper.

A Research perspective

From a special education standpoint, the paper is a perfect storm of issues that can hinder students, especially at a critical juncture of their school careers. Research indicates students who have been identified as having a learning difficulty are more at risk of exiting high school before they have obtained their graduation credential (Schargel & Smink, 2013). Bender (2004) identifies reading and writing difficulties as one of the most common manifestations of Learning disabilities in students. The idea of writing a large research paper is a daunting task to students who struggle with the basics of writing. There are many moving pieces to writing a paper for a high school student which include the following:

1. Idea generation
2. Research and sourcing
3. Story mapping
4. Paragraph construction
5. Sentence construction
6. Word Choice
7. Editing for content
8. Editing for construction
9. Presentation (Terego, 2005).

These moving pieces must often occur in situations where a content area teacher, such as a social studies teacher, has not been trained in teaching writing to adolescent learners. Often content teachers are unable to diagnose writing problems, offer effective direct instruction, and assist students in meeting the expectations of the task: produce a research paper (Graham, et al, 2014). This leads to a mutually frustrating situation, as students who experience scholastic difficulties in writing are asked by teacher to write a significant paper. Further exasperating the problem, many of the teachers are ill prepared to teach the writing process (Lucas & Passe, 2017).

Actions taken

Besides one-to-one coaching, Casey was unsure on how to better assist the students with special learning needs in his classroom. Nancy, realizing her senior students were becoming increasingly frustrated at the project, began meeting with Casey to implement a strategic intervention plan for the students who needed extra help. Our first step was to meet on a regular, weekly basis to discuss student’s progress, their frustrations, and what we, as instructors could do to help.

The two teachers then examined some of the issues which emerged as students were writing their research paper. Nancy and Casey engaged in Self Study/ reflective practice in order to better serve the needs of the students.   A self-study as defined in Kline and Soejatminah’s (2016) work contains five elements: “it is self-initiated and focused; it is improvement-aimed; it is interactive; it includes multiple, mainly qualitative methods; and it defines validity based on trustworthiness” (p. 162). Over the course of the fall semester of that year, we engaged in daily dialogues with each other. These dialogues were structured as mentoring sessions that were initiated through the school district’s efforts to pair an experienced teacher with a novice teacher. Additional dialogues included interaction with other members of the special education staff at the high school, and some discussions with members of the social studies department. Almost every teacher and teacher’s assistant in the two departments were available for conversations due to the small size of the departments. Our self study was designed less as a practitioner research project but more as an instructional improvement project in order to serve our highest priority stakeholders: at-risk special education students in a rural community in upstate New York.

In the class, we decided to move to a consultation model, where teams of students were given opportunities to meet with us in a setting where Casey helped with the content, and Nancy helped with the writing process. Students were asked, in teams, to read a paragraph the other student team member had written and make comments on the flow and content. This workshop approach, with two teachers available for support allowed students time in class to hone writing abilities.

We then invited students to come in during lunch and after school to receive more individual writing assistance with the paper. We also teamed with ELA teachers and the librarian at the school to offer “expert” assistance in writing and research. After school, students could access Casey for content, Nancy for scaffolding the assignment, the librarian for research help, and the ELA teacher for writing support.

The experience we reported here is an attempt to reflect upon and improve professional practice by an experienced and novice teacher working with at risk populations. We, as a team, were trying to ensure students who faced obstacles to graduation could have an opportunity to become successful. Further, we were aware of a situation which Deshler, Robinson, & Mellard, (2009) describe as the special education practitioner becoming the content area “tutor” that helped students with special needs “survive” content classes. We actively sought to ensure that both Casey and Nancy were equals, co-teachers, presenting and guiding students without differentiation of their classroom value to the students.

Conclusion

Without a doubt, the national attention payed to civics education is important, and frankly overdue. As social studies teachers across New York State realize, civics education is layered into the Common Core aligned state learning standards. With partnerships with librarians, media specialists, and the English departments become more critical now more than ever we must ensure students aren’t left behind. Engaging in citizenship by more than voting is important. The fundamentals and processes which are covered in the Participation and Government class help students master skills necessary for adulthood. The major concern is the level of support given to students to complete a research paper during the class, especially with students with disabilities. It is critical and important that if a large research paper is required, then sufficient co-planning, scaffolding, and feedback are marshaled between the two teachers. As practitioners, our best thinking is needed in this area.

References

Bender, W. N. (2004). Learning disabilities: Characteristics, identification, and teaching strategies. Allyn & Bacon.

Copeland, W. & O’Leary (1989). Effective Participation in Government. Washington: Policy Studies Association.

Deshler, D. D., Robinson, S., & Mellard, D. F. (2009). Instructional principles for optimizing outcomes for adolescents with learning disabilities. Classroom strategies for struggling learners, 173-189.

Graham, S., & MacArthur, C. A. (Eds.). (2013). Best practices in writing instruction. Guilford Press.

Graham, S., Capizzi, A., Harris, K. R., Hebert, M., & Morphy, P. (2014). Teaching writing to middle school students: A national survey. Reading and Writing, 27(6), 1015-1042.

Kline, J., & Soejatminah, S. (2016). “Becoming” Teacher Education Researchers in Diverse Rural Communities. In Self-studies in Rural Teacher Education (pp. 157-178). Springer International Publishing.

Lucas, A. G., & Passe, J. (2017). Are social studies methods textbooks preparing teachers to support students with disabilities in social studies classrooms?. The Journal of Social Studies Research, 41(2), 141-153.

National Governors Association (2010). Common Core State Learning Standards. Washington, D.C.

NYSED (2014). New York State Social Studies Frameworks. Albany, NY

Schargel, F., & Smink, J. (2013). Helping students graduate: A strategic approach to dropout prevention. Routledge.

Terego, A. (2005). Essay Writing for High School Students, Lawrenceville, NJ.

You Can’t Be Neutral on a Moving Train

Derek Pearce, James Madison High School, Brooklyn, NY

American historian and activist Howard Zinn, who passed in 2010, released his memoirs in 1994 under the title “You Can’t Be Neutral on a Moving Train”. While I am sure Zinn’s words are open to interpretation, I have always taken them as a challenge: to what extent are you willing to allow history to unfold around you before taking action? For Zinn, these words were used to confront his students about their involvement in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. Then, like now, there is a serious debate in teaching circles about how involved educators should be when social issues are discussed in the classroom. “How can you,” one might ask, “tell your students what you believe without influencing them?” The answer, of course, is that you can’t. But that doesn’t mean that you shouldn’t.

In the wake of the Parkland Shooting, I temporarily put my freshman global history curriculum on hold. Instead of examining the historical contributions of the 14th century West African emperor Mansa Musa, we spent several days analyzing the details of the Parkland Shooting, the virtues of the Second Amendment, and the state of gun control in the United States. Musa, I assured myself, would understand. During the discussions that inevitably follow these sorts of lessons, my students predictably asked me to weigh-in on the debate. What I told them was that I supported the common sense measures proposed by the student survivors of the Parkland shooting. That I had read dozens of sources, listened to hours of news radio during my commute, read the online platform created by the Parkland survivors, weighed the evidence, and had decided that I agreed. For the homework assignment that night they had to find the website created by the Parkland students and write a response to their simple three-point petition letter. The following day, my students arrived to find the classroom arranged in a large circle with only a single question written on the board: “Should we march?” I was referring to the “March For Our Lives” event being held on the west side of Manhattan the following day. In each of my five classes, a gradual consensus emerged over the course of the forty-five minute discussion. Some were opposed to the Second Amendment and some were not. Some wanted to ban all privately owned guns and some did not. Some thought the march would be effective and some did not. But everyone agreed that the status quo was not tenable. Everyone agreed that something needed to be done.

I ended that class with a challenge that I think Howard Zinn would have appreciated. I told my students that I would be waiting on the corner of Columbus Avenue and 72nd Street from 8AM to 8:30 AM to march in support of the petition created by the Parkland students. I then asked, “Would anyone care to join me?” Of the dozens of students that agreed, only four showed up. Alas, social activists or not, they are still very much thirteen and fourteen year olds. But the four who did show up arrived with homemade signs, orange t-shirts, and painted faces. They marched and chanted and took pictures and posted on Snapchat. They met other high school students and debated policy on the streets. They laughed and joked and left the event an hour early to eat fast food. But they marched.

I don’t know if the lessons influenced their opinions. I don’t know how much the Parkland Shooting affected them personally or whether or not they really care. I don’t know if any of them would have marched if I hadn’t challenged them. I don’t know if they will continue to be activists or if they just wanted to get some good pictures for Instagram. But I do know one thing: the train is moving, and I am definitely not neutral.

Responses to Timothy Snyder’s On Tyranny:
Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century

In On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century (NY: Tim Duggan Books, 2017), historian Timothy Snyder, an expert on 20th century Eastern European history, expresses his concerns with 21st century developments in the United States and Europe. Snyder is the Housum Professor of History at Yale University and a permanent fellow at the Institute for Human Sciences in Vienna. The brief book, only 126 pages, was written during the first year of the Trump presidency. While it clearly responds to events taking place and governmental decisions, it does not actually mention Donald Trump. Snyder explains that history does not repeat itself, but it does familiarize, instruct, and warn.

Snyder argues that the founders of the United States, the revolutionary generation that wrote the Constitution and created the new nation, were fundamentally concerned with the threat of tyranny. In the eighteenth century the threat came from monarchy. In the twentieth century he argues it came from fascism, Nazism, and Stalinist communism. Snyder worries that in the twenty-first century the threat to democracy will come from virulent nationalist populism. He sees the potential for the rise of authoritarianism in the United States as a response to a real or perceived danger and quotes James Madison that tyranny arises “on some favorable emergency.” He also quotes Hannah Arendt who wrote that after the Reichstag fire in Germany “I was no longer of the opinion that one can simply be a bystander.”

The lessons Snyder highlights include the need to defend democratic institutions from domestic threats, the challenge not to automatically obey governments, the requirement that Americans champion belief in truth, and a call to take responsibility for events and conditions around the world. Ultimately, Snyder’s book is a call for active citizenship and resistance against tyranny by advocates of democracy and liberty.

We asked social studies teachers what should be our responses to current events in the United States and how should these events influence what and how we teach?

Carolyn Herbst, ATSS/UFT (adapted from a speech she gave to the American Society for Yad Vashem in March 2018): I cannot help but see connections between the United States reaction to refugees from Nazism in Europe, and the current United States reaction to the mass movement of refugees from around the world due to wars, famine, dysfunctional governments, political turmoil and ethnic cleansing. In the 1930s the United States shut its doors to Jewish refugees seeking asylum from Hitler. By the 1940s it was too late. Only after World War II did the United States, in shame, agree to accept Jewish survivors. The anti-Semitic atmosphere in the United States, fuelling oppressive immigration quota laws in the 1920s is a blot in United States history.

Today, the shameful atmosphere in the United States toward the immigration of refugees trying to escape all manner of horrors around the world is another shameful blot in United States history. As someone deeply imbued with the events of Jewish and Jewish-American history, as someone deeply imbued with the events of global history, as someone deeply imbued with the events of American political, social and cultural history, as a citizen of the United States, a resident of multi-cultural New York City, as an educator deeply involved with public education in New York City serving students and their families from all over the world, I cannot but help draw these connections.

We have children in New York City schools, we have licensed teachers in the New York City school system, who live in dread of what is coming next in terms of what will happen to them and their families in terms of deportation, Immigration and Customs Enforcement raids, and the changing with the wind positions on DACA Dreamers in Congress. This should not be.

We have always been a nation of immigrants and have always been much stronger for it. Immigrants, our own family members, have and continue to make positive contributions to the basic strong fabric of life in The United States. Yet just as the United States succumbed to irrational immigration laws of the 1920s we are doing the same again today. Let us give lessons to our children that what happened in the United States just prior to the Holocaust should not be repeated today.

Anti-Semitism in Europe and the United States is not dead. Anti-Semitism is rearing its head in new ways. Holocaust Denial is a new form of anti-Semitism. Calls for divestiture of Israeli investments is a new form of anti-Semitism. Attacks on Jews, on Jewish stores and on synagogues are occurring in increasing numbers. Swastikas are appearing painted on buildings. In the United States swastikas are appearing on signs and banners at “America First” rallies. Every time I enter one of the Jewish themed museums in New York City with a police car or police officers stationed in front for protection I am reminded of it.

In the United States anti-Semitism has become entwined with attacks on other hate-group targets: Muslims, Hispanics, African-Americans. An attack on one minority group is an attack on all. We must not succumb to this. We must be ever vigilant.

Thomas Masterson, Glen Cove Middle School: Timothy Snyder’s On Tyranny is a harrowing book that pokes and prods at very vulnerable places. It provides a historical and theoretical explanation for many crises facing the United States and for understanding news and opinion. Too much of what Snyder warns against is plausible in the current political climate. I was most struck by the chapter “Believe in Truth.” In the media, we see people, including high-ranking government officials, dismissing arguments as “fake news” despite evidence because the information does not fit their preconceptions and beliefs. Differences of opinion based on evidence and analysis are legitimate, but there is no such thing as “alternative facts.” I agree with Snyder’s assertion that “Post-truth is pre-fascism,” and as teachers, we must equip and challenge students to reject unsubstantiated claims. Whatever our political leanings, we must advocate for truth, reason, opinions based on evidence, and open dialogue.

Kyle Novak, Hofstra University: This book is a warning to Americans, but also the rest of the democratic world. Although he does not mention Donald Trump directly, I believe Snyder is responding to the Trump presidency. He wants Americans to be vigilant in defense of democracy and constitutional government, which he sees as fragile and imperiled. One of his greatest concerns is the emergence of paramilitary groups, which we saw in Charlottesville and may be behind gun advocacy.

Mark Vasco, Bethpage High School: Snyder’s background as a historian of central and eastern Europe during the 20th century well equips him to examine potential threats to democracy in the United States. His underlying message in all twenty lessons is that citizens in a democratic society cannot be passive. They must actively involve themselves in defense of things that matter, even when inconvenient or when standing out places you at risk. Snyder is especially concerned with dishonesty in the highest office, as the “Big Lie” was a tool used by Nazis in Germany during the 1930s to undermine democratic institutions and faith in government. Almost 80% of Trump’s campaign pronouncements were false, and this trends continued during his first year in office. While I find Snyder’s concerns to be a little exaggerated, I do agree that our current electoral system is flawed and that teachers have to better prepare students to recognize “fake news.”

Alyssa Knipfing, Oceanside High School: I disagree overwhelmingly with the political views that shape Snyder’s essentially ideological manifesto. He has structured a false comparison between the election of Donald Trump and his first year in office with Adolf Hitler’s ascendency to power in Germany and the emergence of totalitarian regimes. The United States is not the German Third Reich, American government is not crippled, and Donald Trump is not a proto-fascist who seized power intent on undermining democratic institutions. I concede that much in the United States needs repair, but Snyder’s views are too radical and do not hold up to scrutiny. One thing I do agree with is the call for active citizenship and we are witnessing that in the mobilization of young people to demand gun reform in the United States. Their ability to organize a campaign could never happen in a totalitarian society.

Fascism in America: It Can Happen Here

Alan Singer, Hofstra University

Sinclair Lewis titled his 1935 novel about a fascist threat to the United States It Can’t Happen Here. The novel tells the story of “Buzz” Windrip, who defeats Franklin Roosevelt for president in 1936 after a campaign based on stoking fear, promising unlikely economic reform, and championing patriotism and “traditional” values. Philip Roth developed a similar theme in his 2004 novel The Plot against America. This time it is 1940 and FDR is defeated for reelection by the real life aviation hero and pro-German “America First” anti-Semite Charles Lindbergh. Both books are works of fiction, but the domestic fascist threat to the United States prior to World War II was all too real. Unfortunately, and frighteningly, it may be all too real in the United States again today.

On February 20, 1939, an estimated 22,000 American fascists held a pro-German, pro-Nazi rally in New York City’s Madison Square Garden. The rally coincided with George Washington’s Birthday and was advertised by the German American Bund as “True Americanism and George Washington Birthday Exercises.” A 30-foot high image of Washington was on the podium spanned by Nazi swastikas.

James Wheeler-Hill, the national secretary of the Bund, opened the Nazi celebration by welcoming “My fellow Christian Americans.” Speakers denounced the press, radio, and cinema for being in “hands of the Jews” and demanded a “white, gentile-ruled USA.” To demonstrate their patriotism, the assemblage pledged allegiance to the American flag and stood respectfully for The Star-Spangled Banner — while offering the Nazi Sieg Heil right-armed raised palm out, salute. Over 1,700 New York City police officers were assigned to patrol the Garden and nearby streets to prevent clashes with counter-protesters.

While historians continue to debate the precise conditions that contribute to the rise of fascism and what makes particular countries especially at-risk, during World War II the United States War Department saw domestic fascism as a genuine threat to American democracy. In 1945, it issued a memorandum called “Fascism!“ where it addressed the prospects of domestic fascism. “At various times in our history, we have had sorry instances of mob sadism, lynchings, vigilantism, terror, and suppression of civil liberties. We have had our hooded gangs, Black Legions, Silver Shirts, and racial and religious bigots. All of them, in the name of Americanism, have used undemocratic methods and doctrines which experience has shown can be properly identified as ‘fascist.’” The War Department warned, “An American Fascist seeking power would not proclaim that he is a Fascist. Fascism always camouflages its plans and purposes . . . It would work under the guise of ‘super-patriotism’ and ‘super-Americanism’”

The memo concluded, “The germ of Fascism cannot be quarantined in a Munich Brown House or a balcony in Rome. If we want to make certain that Fascism does not come to America, we must make certain that it does not thrive anywhere in the world.”

In medical terms, fascism can best be described as a syndrome rather than as disease. It is identified by a number of indices or symptoms, and not one specific descriptor. Historian John McNeill of Georgetown University argues that previous fascist movements have to one extent or another been rooted in an ideology of hyper-nationalism or super-patriotism, promoted militarism, glorified masculinity, violence, and youth, worshiped a cult of the powerful leader, and idealized a mystical national “golden age” in the past that could be reborn. As mass movements they often defined themselves by what they were not, immigrants, communists, socialists, homosexuals, or Jews. Fascist leaders and political parties tended toward the theatrical and were prone to purge any dissidents. Although frequently used as synonyms, Fascism and Nazism are not the same thing. Nazism was an especially virulent anti-Semitic variety of fascism.

What McNeil leaves out, and what I think is even more important, are the economic causes of fascism within capitalist societies that enable fascist movements to achieve power. They are nearly always the product of economic distress, either of a particular group, or the entire country. Successful fascist movements involve alliances of the dispossessed with powerful business and financial interests that use mass movements to pacify discontent, to displace blame for social distress onto easily victimized scapegoats, and to eliminate radical alternatives. In Germany and Italy in the 1920s and 1930s socialists, communists, and labor unionists were the first targets of the fascists.

In the United States today we witness some of these same tendencies with nasty verbal attacks on Muslims, inner-city minorities, immigrants, and political opponents, and as rightwing populism is used by wealthy capitalists and their supporters as a way to eliminate regulations on industry and finance and to reduce taxes on corporations and the mega-rich. The Constitution was designed by the nation’s founders with a series of checks and balances to prevent a movement like fascism from taking power. However the checks and balances system may not be working as one party, a party influenced by extreme rightwing forces, controls all three branches of the national government and a majority of state houses and has been using that unblocked power to suppress opposition votes.

Today fascist and neo-fascist movements are on the upswing as populist discontent, often manipulated by powerful economic interests, embraces militant nationalism and scapegoats immigrants, cosmopolitans (including Jews, gays, and left-intellectuals), and ethnic and religious minorities for economic stagnation, income inequality, unwanted cultural change, and their sense of displacement. While hatred and bigotry are frightening by themselves, the greater concern is that these movements could propel anti-democratic forces into power as they did in Italy and Germany in the 1920s and 1930s and in Russia in recent decades. Benito Mussolini in 1922, Adolf Hitler in 1933, and Vladimir Putin in 1999 all rose to power through legitimate means and then moved to undermine democracy.

In the United States the ugliness of the alt-right and neo-Nazi groups was on display at their August 2017 “Unite the Right“ rallies in Charlottesville, Virginia. Marchers carried Nazi-style torches and chanted “White Lives Matter” and “Jews will not replace us.”

Although President Donald Trump denounced the outbreak of violence in Charlottesville, former Imperial Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan David Duke claimed Trump inspired the rally and called his election a “turning point for the people of this country. We are determined to take our country back.”

In recent months tens of thousands of rightwing Poles with allies from Slovakia, Hungary, and Spain, marched in Warsaw under banners declaring “Europe Will Be White” and “Pray for Islamic Holocaust.” Demonstrators chanted “Pure Poland, White Poland” and “Refugees Get Out.” Weeks earlier, outrage when images of Anne Frank were used to insult members of an Italian soccer team based in Rome, exposed a history of anti-Semitic and racist taunting at matches. In recent elections, openly fascist or neo-fascist political parties have made significant inroads in Germany (Alternative für Deutschland); Hungary (Jobbik); France (Front National); Greece (Golden Dawn); the Netherlands (Partij voor de Vrijheid); Italy (Lega Nord); Denmark (Danish People’s Party); and Austria (Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs). Rightwing “populism” in these countries and the United States share many of the same anti-democratic, anti-intellectual qualities as the Islamic fundamentalist movements they denounce and use as a ploy to rally supporters.

Populism has gotten a bad name because of these developments. But populism is not inherently rightwing, anti-intellectual, and anti-democratic. The labor movement of the 1930s, the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, and women’s rights movements for the last two hundred years have all been populist movements promoting democratic values and social justice.

Fascism did not arrive in the United States with the election of Donald Trump. However, it is worth quoting the War Department memo again as a conclusion to this blog.

“Fascism is not the easiest thing to identify and analyze; nor, once in power, is it easy to destroy.” However, according to the War Department, “it is important for our future and that of the world that as many as possible understand the causes and practices of fascism in order to combat.” The memo stressed four points:

• Fascism is more apt to come to power in time of economic crisis;
• Fascism inevitably leads to war;
• it can come in any country;
• We can best combat it by making our democracy work.

Culturally Responsive Webquests: Connecting Technology with Inquiry-Based Learning

Erik J. Byker, University of North Carolina-Charlotte

Vicki Thomas, Stephen F. Austin State University

We open with a vignette. The middle school bell rings and fourth period begins. Sixth grade students are paired up on laptop computers working through a webquest on Central America. The webquest’s title is Un Viaje a Centroamérica or A Trip to Central America. The webquest exploration includes investigating Internet websites in order to create a map of Central America on a piece of paper. As the students create their maps, the buzz begins. One student exclaims to his partner, “I never knew Costa Rica was in Central America!” Another student turns to her partner and inquires, “What does the word tarea mean?” The partner replies, “I think it is a Spanish word that means something like homework or task.” The webquest is an interactive way for the middle schoolers in this vignette to engage in an authentic Internet based learning experience by exploring the culture, geography, and language of Central America through the aid of computer technology. As the students explore websites and webpages about Central America, they have the task to create a map of the region as the artifact of the webquest.

What exactly is a webquest? A webquest is an interactive web-based inquiry where learners engage in what Bernie Dodge (1995) explains is an, “inquiry-oriented lesson format in which most or all the information that learners work with comes from the Internet” (p. 13). The webquest includes several parts to guide the inquiry: 1) an introduction; 2) a task; 3) a process or procedure to follow, which includes links to websites to explore; 4) a rubric for evaluation; 5) a conclusion of the activity; and 6) a credits page. When designed well, a webquest represents a technological tool that maps on to the National Council of Social Studies (NCSS) C3 Framework. The C3 Framework was published in 2018 and describes important role of inquiry—called the inquiry arc—in preparation for college, career, and civic life. Here’s how NCSS (2013) explains how “the inquiry arc emphasizes the disciplinary concepts and practices that support students as they develop the capacity to know, analyze, explain, and argue about interdisciplinary challenges in our social world” (p. 6). A webquest supports the inquiry arc as learners use technology to research a question or issue through an analytical process in order to communicate their findings.

Indeed, the point of the webquest is to guide learners in navigating Internet web pages and links in a constructivist way. The literature reveals how webquests provide a powerful platform for the integration of technology with social studies, language arts, and world languages (Author, 2014; Hung, 2015; Lipscomb, 2003; Simina & Hamel, 2005; Vanguri, Sunal, Wilson & Wright 2004). Researchers have also found how webquests guide learners in developing a wide range of skills including technological skills, literacy skills, and critical thinking skills (Author, 2014). Webquests reflect how educators merge their Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) to design a technology enhanced, inquiry based experience for their students (Author, 2013; 2014).

Conceptual Framework

As the introductory vignette reveals, a webquest can be designed in culturally responsive ways. Geneva Gay (2002) explains that culturally responsive teaching is defined as, “using the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for teaching them more effectively” (p. 106). More recently, Django Paris (2012) introduced the term culturally sustaining pedagogy to expand the notion of culturally relevant teaching. Paris (2012) explains that culturally sustaining pedagogy goes beyond a teaching moment and is a pedagogy that sustain “cultural and linguistic competence of communities while simultaneously offering access to dominant cultural competence; culturally sustaining pedagogy, then, has as its explicit goal supporting multilingualism and multiculturalism” (p. 95). The Central American webquest in the vignette is an example of how technology can be utilized in culturally sustaining ways through a multilingual platform. While the literature shows that webquests have many advantages, what are learners’ perceptions of webquests? Also, what are culturally responsive and culturally ways to design webquests? The purpose of this article is to address these larger questions. The article has two objectives. First, the article examines middle school students’ (n=33) perceptions of interacting with social studies based webquests. Second, the article describes how to design culturally responsive webquests. To meet these two objectives the article investigates the following three research questions:

1. What are the participants’ perceptions of using webquests to engage in middle level social studies topics?
2. What are the effects, if any, of using webquests in teaching middle level social studies?
3. How can webquests be designed in culturally responsive and sustaining ways?

Method

We used case study research design (Yin, 2008) to investigate the aforementioned research questions. We examined how a middle level social studies teacher implemented webquests as part of the classroom instruction. The case study includes an artifact analysis of the Un Viaje a Centroamérica Webquest as well as the artifacts the participants created from the Webquest. Additionally, the case study data are comprised of the participants’ responses to a Likert-scale style survey, which inquired about their perceptions of using webquests in social studies.

Data Analysis

We analyzed the Likert-scale survey’s quantitative data using descriptive statistics. These statistics provide summations of the participants’ perceptions of the Webquest. Our quantitative analysis also reports on the participants’ demographics. We analyzed the qualitative data—primarily the open-ended responses on the survey—using Miles and Huberman’s (1994) three-step interpretive approach. We first read the data and coded as part of data reduction. We then displayed the data in a visual way to establish categories. Finally, we made conclusions by a process of organizing the categories into larger themes.

Participants

The study’s sample size was comprised of 33 sixth grade students (n=33) from a middle school in a rural area of the Southcentral region of the United States. Of the participants, 55% were female and 45% were male. Almost half (48%) were bilingual as 16 students indicated that they speak Spanish at home. About 97% of the participants indicated they had some kind of computer device at home (i.e., a desktop, laptop, or an iPad) and 88% indicated that their families owned a cell phone. Slightly more than half of the participants (51%) indicated that outside of school they use a computer at least four days of the week. In response to that same question, though, 15% of the participants shared that outside of school they do not use a computer at all. When asked about their most important purposes for using the computer, 73% of the participants selected Search for Information and the next highest response was Listening to Music. The participants indicated that social studies was the subject they learned best when using computer technology.

Findings

Related to the first research question about participants’ perceptions of using webquests to engage in middle level social studies topics, 90% of the participants indicated they either strongly agreed or agreed that they enjoyed using webquests to engage in social studies. All the participants either strongly agreed (52%) or agreed (48%) that they work better with other classmates when using webquest. Almost 73% of the participants thought they learned more from webquests than from lecture notes and 85% of the participants preferred using webquests in social studies rather than using a social studies textbook.

The second research question inquired about any effects of using webquests in teaching middle level social studies. One effect the participants reported was increased engagement. Almost 88% of the participants agreed or strongly agreed that they were engaged with social studies content when it was delivered via a webquest. Likewise, 95% of the participants indicated that that they understood more about a social studies topic when exploring the topic with a webquest. In the open response sections of the survey, many participants shared how the webquest was meaningful experience. See Table 1 for a description of the open-ended response questions on the survey and examples of participants’ responses.

Table 1

Open Ended Response Question on the Likert Survey

Open-ended Response Questions	Examples of Participants’ Responses
1) In your own words, how would you explain to a friend what a webquest is?	A webquest is an educational thing to do on the computer. You search information and use it.A site where it brings you to a webpage and then you do stuff on that page so you learn stuff.
2) When you think about a webquest, what other words or phrases immediately come to mind (try to list, at least, 2 other words or phrases)?	A learning journeyBilingual and funWebsites and social studies
3) What will you remember the most from the webquest you explored?	The Central America Webquest was something that had a meaning to me. My family is from Guatemala so reading about it meant a lot to me. Seeing the pictures and looking at the websites helped me learn more about Central America because I was able to interact with websites

As Table 1 shows, the meaningfulness of the Central America Webquest was reflected in the participants’ responses to what they will remember the most from the webquest. For example, one participant identified a familial connection (i.e., family from Guatemala), which made the webquest meaningful. Another participant connected the webquest’s meaningfulness with its interactive design. The inclusion of multimedia helped this participant to better interact with content. A few of the participants also shared how the webquest was meaningful because it was bilingual—written in Spanish and English—which meant everyone could understand the webquest’s content. The participants’ perceptions and open-ended responses capture the possibilities of using webquests to make social studies meaningful. The participants found the webquest to be meaningful vis-à-vis its culturally responsive design and its interactive multimedia that supported their web journey into Central America.

The third research question inquired about how webquests can be designed in culturally responsive and sustaining ways. We focus on three ways in particular. First, webquests are responsive when they are multilingual. Creating multilingual webquests is not as difficult as some may imagine. For example, a webquest generator website called Zunal (Link: http://zunal.com/) also contains a database of already created webquests. Educators can search for webquests on this website, which are in multiple languages. Second, learners can use Google Chrome or FireFox as the web browser for their webquests. Both of these web browsers will provide an option to translate websites written in another language—including websites geared for kids—into English. This option means that students who are bilingual or multilingual are able to access websites in their home language, while the students who speak only English also have access to a translated version of the website. Third, webquests are culturally sustaining when they include multiple representations of culture and people through images and text. The interactive power of webquest technology is represented not just through words, but also through multimedia. This is what makes a webquest like the A Trip to Central America so engaging, because students see themselves and their culture reflected in the websites they are exploring.

Discussion

Webquests connect technology and social studies in relevant ways to young learners’ culture and history. Webquests also support and engage young learners through a process of inquiry. Furthermore, the inquiry arc within the design of webquest aligns with many of the NCSS (2013) C3 Framework dimensions, including: (a) Dimension 1. Developing Questions and Planning Inquiries; (b) Dimension 2. Applying Disciplinary Concepts and Tools; and (c) Dimension 3. Evaluating Sources and Using Evidence. Through the webquest tool, young learners participate in asking and answering questions about social studies big ideas. Like the Central America maps that the students in this study created, a well-designed webquest includes a creative outcome where learners apply the content knowledge evidence they found in their web investigation.

The C3 Framework vision is to help prepare young learners with the knowledge and skills for college, career, as well as for the “adult responsibilities in participatory democratic cultures” (NCSS, 2013, p. 89). Webquests support this C3 Framework as learners gain inquiry-related knowledge and skills, which can develop and sharpen their critical thinking, cultural competencies, and global competencies. The webquest technology is more dynamic than the traditional social studies textbook, which is too often Eurocentric and dominated by representations of a middle class monoculture. Yet, public school classrooms across the United States are anything but monoculture or monolinguist. The uses for technology have many affordances including for the development of cultural and global competencies (Author, 2012; 2015; 2016a; Harshman, 2016). A well-crafted webquest can guide students through an inquiry-based journey where they explore a topic and at the same gain expanded vision for how the topic relates to them and their classmates. At the same time, webquests can be used to support sheltered instruction of English, which is also known as the SIOP Model (Short, Echevarría, & Richards-Tutor, 2011). The SIOP Model is framed around supporting English Language Learners by making a lesson’s subject matter content and vocabulary accessible. This, in turn, assists English Language Learners in their development of academic language skills through content which can be accessed in multilinguistic and culturally sustaining ways.

Future Research

A future research agenda would include a deeper investigation into the effects of webquest designs based on the SIOP Model pedagogies. What are the benefits and challenges of webquests designed to support English Language Learners? What sheltered instruction features would be included in the webquests? How could such webquests be accessible and adapted for English Language Learners at all levels—including the elementary school level? These types of questions would help to drive future studies. More research is also needed at all school levels. This present study was centered on middle level learners, but what are the effects of using culturally responsive webquests with early childhood learners, elementary school students, and with secondary students? A future research agenda would also include a comparative and international scope. The comparative lens helps shed light on the similarities and differences in the contextualization of culturally responsive webquests based on where a school is situated.

Artifact creation is one of the distinguishing features of webquests. Rather than just consuming media, students are producing an artifact based on the webquest’s directions. Student authorship of media is a way to support students’ creative expression while recognizing the participatory role of learners with the tools of learning (Author, 2017). More research is needed into students’ perceptions of the artifacts they create based on the webquests they explore. Research questions might include: What are the students’ perceptions of media authorship in relation to the artifacts they create during a webquest? How are the artifacts’ culturally responsive? Finally, future research would also examine the relationship between how participants access and navigate webquests. Some participants in this current study indicated that exploring the Internet with a webquest was a fun way to learn social studies. Technological Play Theory (Author, 2016b) is a theoretical framework for examining how the role of play in using a technology. The theory can be instructive for educators in supporting learners’ curiosity and exploration of webquest. Future research can utilize Technological Play Theory as a conceptual lens for examining the degree to which students—at any school level—play with a webquest in order to master the webquest’s content.

Conclusion

We conclude the article by revisiting the culturally sustaining conceptual framework as well as share ways that practitioners and educators can search for already designed webquest or create their own webquests. Culturally sustaining pedagogy seeks to be responsive to and sustain the cultural richness of a pluralist society (Paris, 2012). Cultural vibrancy is reflected in a society’s customs, languages, literacies, and traditions. A webquest is a tool that learners can utilize to inquire about their own culture and the cultures that are reflected in a pluralistic place like the United States. Webquests show the flexibility of ways in which technology can be used for the development of cultural and global competencies.

There are many websites available for searching and creating webquests. The Teacher Web (Link: http://teacherweb.com) website contains a database of teacher designed webquests. Users of the website can search for webquests by key words or by state and Common Core standards. Another website called Webquest (Link: http://webquest.org/) is both a database and teaching website. The site has webquest design advice and a plethora of resources for the development of webquest. Another site called Questgarden (Link: http://questgarden.com/) has webquest tools supported by a “drag and drop” method for building webquests. The site provides a user-friendly template and the option the webquest navigation system being translated to a dozen or so languages. Questgarden also includes a database of searchable webquests. The Questgarden is not a free site, though, and requires a yearly subscription. Whatever ways or subject matter an educator chooses to include in their webquest; it is important to support the design in culturally responsive and sustaining ways.

References

Author. (2013). Critical cosmopolitanism: Engaging students in global citizenship competencies.   English in Texas Journal, 43(2),18-22.

Author. (2014). Needing TPACK without knowing it: Integrating educational technology in social studies. Social Studies Research and Practice, 9(3), 106-117.

Authors. (2014). A web journey through the Civil War: Using webquests to investigate social studies. Social Studies Texan, 30(4), 23-27.

Author. (2015). Teaching for ‘global telephony’: A case study of a community school for India’s 21st century. Policy Futures in Education, 13(2), 234-246.

Author. (2016a). Developing global citizenship consciousness: case studies of critical cosmopolitan theory. Journal of Research in Curriculum and Instruction, 20(3), 264-275.

Author. (2016b). I play I learn: introducing technological play theory. In D. Polly & C. Martin (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education and Professional Development. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Author. (2017). Educational technology and student voice: examining teacher candidates’ perceptions. World Journal on Education Technology, 9(3), 119-129.

Dodge, B. (1995). WebQuests: a technique for Internet-based learning. Distance Educator, 1(2), 10-13.

Hammond, T. C., & Manfra, M. M. (2009). Giving, prompting, making: Aligning technology and pedagogy within TPACK for social studies instruction. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(2), 160-185.

Harshman, J. (2016). Critical global competence and the C3 in social studies education. The Social Studies, 107(5), 1-5.

Hung, H. T. (2015). Flipping the classroom for English language learners to foster active learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 28(1), 81-96.

Lipscomb, G. (2003). I guess it was pretty fun: Using WebQuests in the middle school classroom. The Clearing House, 76(3), 152-155.

Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,      CA: Sage Publishing.

National Council for the Social Studies [NCSS]. (2013). The college, career, and civic life (C3) framework for social studies state standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K–12 civics, economics, geography, and history. Silver Spring, MD: NCSS Publications.

Paris, D. (2012). Culturally sustaining pedagogy: A needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. Educational Researcher, 41(3), 93-97.

Rice, M. L., & Wilson, E.K. (1999). How technology aids constructivism in the social studies classroom. The Social Studies 90 (1): 28-33.

Short, D. J., Echevarría, J., & Richards-Tutor, C. (2011). Research on academic literacy development in sheltered instruction classrooms. Language Teaching Research, 15(3), 363-380.

Simina, V., & Hamel, M. J. (2005). CASLA through a social constructivist perspective: WebQuest in project-driven language learning. ReCALL, 17(2), 217-228.

Vanguri, P. R., Sunal, C., Wilson, E.K., & Wright, V.H. (2004). WebQuests in social studies education, Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 3(2).

Yin, R. (2008). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing.

Combating Fake News with Media Literacy

Nicole Waid, State University of New York-Oneonta

Fake news is news that intentionally misleads readers and is often verifiably false. Alcott and Gentzkow (2017) noted that some types of inaccurate information, like unintentional errors in reporting, satire, conspiracy theories, and news that is misleading but not factually inaccurate, are related fake news. During the presidential election of 2016, there was an explosion of fake news stories that permeated many forms of media. In the CIA report on Russian interference in the election, it made estimates that the Russian government used strategically placed pieces of propaganda to depress voter turnout or cause divisions among the American people. Since the CIA report, emerging reports by Alcott and Gentzkow (2017) revealed that approximately 38 million shares of fake news led to 760 million instances of a user clicking on a story and reading it. Using social media as a primary news source is a relatively new phenomenon. Gottfried and Shearer (2016) reported recent evidence that 62% of adults in the United States view news on various social media platforms. With electronic devices readily available, it becomes increasingly difficult to evaluate information for its integrity. Silverman (2016) asserted that the most sought-after fake news stories were shared on Facebook more than mainstream news stories.

While using social media platforms to spread false news reports seemed like a novel approach to influencing public opinion, fake news is hardly a new phenomenon; the dissemination of false news accounts spanned centuries. Fake news stories date back centuries in Europe. In 1475, a two 1⁄2-year-old baby went missing in Trent, Italy on Easter Sunday. Franciscan preacher, Bernardino da Feltre, delivered a series of sermons claiming that the Jewish community had killed the child, drained the blood and consumed it to celebrate Passover. The Prince-Bishop of Trent Johannes IV Hinderbach responded to the sermons and ordered the immediate arrest and torture of the city’s entire Jewish community. Fifteen Jewish community members were found guilty, and their punishment was burning at the stake. The story inspired surrounding communities to commit similar actions against Jewish people. The papacy intervened and attempted to stop the spread of both the story and the murders. Hinderbach felt threatened by the papacy’s attempts to discredit his claims, so he spread more fake news stories about Jews drinking the blood of Christian children. Hinderbach was not the first to disseminate false stories about Jewish people. Historians have cataloged fake stories maligning Jews that added to the foundation of anti-Semitism, back to the 12th century (Michael, 2008).

There were official news stories in the 15th century like church and political documents. There were also news accounts from merchants and sailors, but there were no journalistic ethics, and the statements lacked objectivity. By the 17th century, historians attempted to verify their reports by publishing footnotes that included their sources. After the trial of Galileo, Galileo’s court proceedings in 1610 also created a demand for scientifically verifiable news. The desire for accurate news sources led to the creation of respected news sources. Despite the push for more scientifically valid news stories, after the Lisbon earthquake of 1755 stories were written attributing the earthquake to retribution against sinners. Philosophes like Voltaire disputed religious explanations of natural events making Voltaire an early critic of fake news concerning religion (Soll, 2016).

Fake news also caused divisions before the French Revolution. The French government had engaged in frivolous spending that created a massive budget deficit. Several groups in France produced conflicting news stories about the causes of the budget deficits. Thanks to governmental leaks and other verifiable news stories, people were able to have a general understanding of France’s finances. Just like in today’s political climate, the information and numbers that were released were still suspect to some people, and they had to skillfully figure out the truth in the news accounts.

In recent years, there have been changes in the way teens consume media. Mindich (2005) asserted that 80% of people under the age of 30 do not read newspapers daily. The median age of TV news viewers is 60. Mindich discussed how the generational shifts in news consumption could impact the future of how people engage in the democratic process (Mindich, 2005). Patterson (2007) cited a study by the Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics, and Public Policy that also noted declining teen news consumption on public affairs. The findings of declining news consumption among teens reflect Bennett’s (2008) disengaged youth paradigm, which measures the possibility of a healthy democracy with young people voting and consuming news about public events. It is imperative that students are taught techniques to detect fake news stories, so they can be part of an informed electorate when they turn 18 and can vote.

The current explosion of fake news has created a challenge for social studies teachers to incorporate instruction that will help students develop media literacy skills so they can be more responsible about what information they share. Bennett (2008) stated that both informal and formal instruction of how to use critical media literacy skills could build a foundation for positive civic engagement. Martens and Hobbs (2015) explained that media literacy skills addressed multiple competencies such as analyzing media messaging and understanding how the media works. Improving these competencies in students may enhance their ability to weigh in on current events responsibly disseminated on social media. They went further to suggest when media literacy is incorporated into secondary education classrooms, teachers can assist students to make sense of news stories through inquiry learning. Hobbs (2010) said that if students had the skills to analyze media sources, they may be more responsible about what stories they share. That understanding provides students the appropriate social and intellectual support they need to become engaged in civic matters as adults.

Eighteen pre-service social studies teachers took a BBC online media literacy quiz in their social studies methods course to test their ability to detect fake news stories. On the seven-question quiz, no students answered all of the questions correctly. Twenty-two percent of the students correctly identified four or five as fake news stories. Forty-four percent of the students were able to identify three of the seven fake news stories. Thirty-three percent of the students were able to detect two or none fake news stories. After the fake news quiz was over, the students were asked about their responses. Some of the students said they had seen some of the questions on social media, and believed the stories. Most of the students indicated that they see so many news articles they are not sure what to think anymore.

The discussion about the fake news quiz was used as a springboard for a lesson on strategies to detect fake news stories. The students were given the following steps to detect fake news:

1. Read the full story, not just the headline. Some articles use headlines that will elicit a reaction from the reader. Having a provocative headline to lure users to click on a story is referred to as “clickbait.” Clicking on a story often will take you to a website that has ads so that this practice may be a deceptive way of increasing advertisement revenue. An example of this would be http://www.infowars.com. When a story is clicked, there are multiple ads for supplements and vitamins sold by Info Wars.
2. Verify the story through credible sources. The key to verifying a story is to find two other credible sources that have reported on the story. Sometimes multiple news articles will use a common article for sourcing. For example, when Tom Petty was near death, TMZ circulated a report of his death. Many other news sources reported on the singer’s death before he had died.
3. Try to determine the purpose of the story. There can be many purposes for publishing news stories, ranging from to inform to damage a person’s credibility.
4. Do not rely on technology to vet the reliability of news. Fact checking services sometimes can have an underlying bias. It is best to use first-hand accounts to verify news stories.
5. Consider the source. The RJI Reynolds Journalism Institute conducted the Trusting News project, which asked twenty-eight partner newsrooms to ask viewers their views about the credibility of news sources. From 8,728 questionnaire responses, the Trusting News project provided lists of the ten most trusted and least trusted news sources. Not surprisingly, there were differences based on the political leanings of the respondents. People who said they trusted Rachel Maddow were liberals and people who trusted Rush Limbaugh were conservatives.

Teaching students to critically view media sources will make them less susceptible to being swayed by fake news. If students improve their knowledge of the media, independently analyze news stories for their truthfulness, and explore multiple sources to gain information on a topic, it may help them want to become more civically involved.

References

Alcott, H., Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236.

Bennett, W. L. (2008). Civic life online: Learning how digital media can engage youth. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

BBC News(2016). Can you spot fake stories quiz. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-38005844.

Gottfried, J., Shearer, E. (2016). News use across social media platforms 2016. Pew Research Center, May 26. Retrieved from http://www. journalism.org/2016/05/26/news-use- acrosssocial-media-platforms-2016

Hobbs, R. (2010). Digital and media literacy: A plan of action. Washington, DC: The Aspen

Institute Communications and Society Program and the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation.

Marchi , R.(2012). With Facebook, blogs, and fake news, teens reject journalistic “objectivity”. Journal of Communication Inquiry, (36)3.246-262.

Mayer, J. (2017). Who trusts-and pays for- the news? Here’s what 8, 728 people told us. Retrieved from https://www.rjionline.org/stories/who-trusts-and-pays-for-the-news-heres what-8728-people-told-us.

Michael, R. (2008). A history of Catholic antisemitism- A dark side of the church. Palgrave Macmillian: New York.

Mindich, D. (2005). Tuned out-Why Americans under 40 don’t watch the news. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Patterson, T.(2007). Young people and the news (A report from the Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press. Retrieved from https://shorensteincenter.org/wp- content/uploads/2012/03/young_people_and_news_2007.pdf

Patterson , T. (2007). Young people and the news(A report from the Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press.

Silverman, C. (2016). This analysis shows how fake election news stories outperformed real news on Facebook. BuzzFeed News, November 16.

Soll, J. (December 12, 2016). The long and brutal history of fake news Retrieved from https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/12/fake-news-history-long-violent-214535.

Sample 11th Grade United States “Enduring Issues” Essay

Henry Dircks, Mepham High School, Bellmore, NY

The “enduring issues” essay will be a hallmark of redesigned New York State Global and United States history Regents exams. This sample “enduring issues” essay and evaluation rubric was developed by Henry Dircks, a social studies teacher at Mepham High School, North Bellmore, New York.

DIRECTIONS: An “Enduring Issue” is an issue or topic that exists across time in U.S. History. It is an issue that the American people have attempted to address with varying degrees of success. Read or observe the five documents below. Then identify and define an enduring issue that is common to all the documents in the set. (For instance, documents such as the Dred Scott decision, a Reconstruction literacy test, a Harlem Renaissance poem, MLK’s Letter from a Birmingham jail and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 would share the issue, “The African-American struggle for equality saw many achievements and setbacks.”) Finally, write an essay in which you:

1. Identify and define the issue using evidence from at least three documents.
2. Argue that this is a significant issue that has endured by showing either:
   1. How the issue has affected people or been affected by people, or:
   2. How the issue has continued to be an issue or changed over time

• Include outside information from your knowledge of social studies and evidence from the documents.

DOCUMENT 1: Thomas Jefferson, Third Annual Message to Congress (1803)Source: The Avalon Project, Yale Law School Website

Congress witnessed, at their last session, the extraordinary agitation produced in the public mind by the suspension of our right of deposit at the port of New Orleans. They were sensible that the continuance of that privation would be injurious to our nation; we had not been unaware of the danger to which our peace would be perpetually exposed while so important a key to the commerce of the western country remained under foreign power. Propositions had, therefore, been authorized for obtaining, on fair conditions, the sovereignty of New Orleans; and the provisional appropriation of two millions of dollars, to be applied by the president of the United States, intended as part of the price, was considered as conveying the sanction of Congress to the acquisition proposed. The enlightened government of France saw, with just discernment, the importance to both nations of such liberal arrangements as might best and permanently promote the peace, friendship, and interests of both; and the property and sovereignty of all Louisiana have on certain conditions been transferred to the United States by instruments bearing date the 30th of April last. While the property and sovereignty of the Mississippi and its waters secure an independent outlet for the produce of the western States, and an uncontrolled navigation through their whole course, free from collision with other powers and the dangers to our peace from that source, the fertility of the country, its climate and extent, promise in due season important aids to our treasury, an ample provision for our posterity, and a wide-spread field for the blessings of freedom and equal laws.

DOCUMENT 2: An Act to Secure Land to Settlers on the Public Domain (1862)

Source: National Archives and Records Administration

SEC. 1.Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That any person who is the head of a family, or who has arrived at the age of twenty-one years, and is a citizen of the United States, or who shall have filed his declaration of intention to become such, as required by the naturalization laws of the United States, and who has never borne arms against the United States Government or given aid and comfort to its enemies, shall, from and after the first January, eighteen hundred and sixty-three, be entitled to enter one quarter section of public lands… which shall not, with the land so already owned and occupied, exceed in the aggregate one hundred and sixty acres.

SEC. 2. And be it further enacted… that said entry is made for the purpose of actual settlement and cultivation, he or she shall thereupon be permitted to enter the quantity of land specified; And That he, she or they shall prove by two credible witnesses that he, she or they have resided upon or cultivated the same for the term of five years immediately succeeding the time of filing the affidavit, the settler shall acquire the absolute title to the land, and be en- titled to a patent from the United States.

DOCUMENT 3: Painting: “The Trail of Tears” by Robert Lindneux (1942)Source: Woolaroc Museum, Bartlesville, Oklahoma

DOCUMENT 4: Resettlement Administration Map (1935) Source: Library of Congress

DOCUMENT 5: Treaty of Paris (1898). Source: The Avalon Project, Yale Law School Website

The United States of America and Her Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain desire to end the state of war now existing between the two countries, who, assembled in Paris, have, after discussion of the matters before them, agreed upon the following articles:Article I: Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba and as the island is, upon its evacuation by Spain, to be occupied by the United States, the United States will, so long as such occupation shall last, assume and discharge the obligations that may under international law result from the fact of its occupation, for the protection of life and property.Article II: Spain cedes to the United States the island of Porto Rico and other islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, and the island of Guam in the Marianas.Article III: Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands. The United States will pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty.

Rubric for Enduring Issues Essay Assignment

POINTS	CONTENT
28-30	Enduring issue is defined and representative of documents Enduring issue is guiding theme throughout essay Discusses task in body paragraphs (people OR change) Uses more than three documents Explains history, rather than just describe it Rich in outside information
24-27	Enduring issue is defined and representative of documents Enduring issue is present throughout essay Discusses task in body paragraphs (people OR change) May use more than three documents May explain history, rather than just describe it More than satisfactory in outside information
20-23	Enduring issue is defined and representative of documents Topics discussed with little reference to enduring issue May discuss task in body paragraphs (people OR change) Uses three documents Describes history; contains satisfactory outside information
15-20	Enduring issue is not defined or not present No reference to enduring issue in essay Does not discuss task in body paragraphs (people OR change) Uses three documentsDescribes history; contains little outside information
0-15	No enduring issue Does not discuss task in body paragraphs (people OR change) Uses fewer than 3 documents Describes history; contains no outside information

Michael Adas and Joseph Gilch, Everyman in Vietnam, by Hank Bitten

In my reading of the first pages of Everyman in Vietnam (Oxford University Press, 2018), I found the personal narrative of Jimmy Gilch, a young man from Runnemede, New Jersey engaging me with fresh perspectives about the conflict in Vietnam. The new perspectives are likely to motivate high school and college students in asking questions about the effects of colonialism on America’s foreign policies, the influence of domestic events, and the reasons for a fragmented foreign policy, and the failure of American intervention in Vietnam. Personal letters offer a perspective that is different from studying historical documents, viewing a film, or reading about battles and events in a book.

One advantage of Everyman in Vietnam is the author’s understanding of the importance of the relationship between the chronological perspective of domestic events and Vietnamese society and culture. History is the story of time and Michael Adas and Joseph Gilch intentionally introduce the historical time machine in an analysis of America’s involvement and why many baby boomers and some of their parents did not support this conflict as their parents and grandparents did in World War II or Korea. The narrative begins with the changes in postwar America that were developing in unexpected ways.

“During the 50s an entire industry built from scratch took hold of the nation. The first telecasts offered little beyond bland news programs and “Howdy Doody,” But by the mid-1950s the broadcast industry was booming. Within a ten-year span from 1949 to 1959, the number of household television sets increased from 940,000 to 44,000,000…. After school Jimmy would often race home and sit on the red carpet in the den watching television to avoid schoolwork. He watched cartoons and teen-targeted programs, such as Tom Terrific and Spin & Marty, His favorite was Tennessee Tuxedo.” (pp.23-24)

The post World War II years were a time of significant demographic, economic, and cultural changes that students need to know as part of their understanding of the decade of the 1960s. The numbers of Americans regularly attending worship services doubled during these years as many were convinced of the value of God and country in a world threatened by the evils of Communism. An example of a new perspective in the book was the impact of President Eisenhower’s speech in 1952 in New York City that “Our government makes no sense unless it is founded in a deeply religious faith.” (p. 24) It is in this context of political and religious conformity that Jimmy and many other youth in every state evolved into school rebels with D.A. haircuts and other modes of passive rebellion.

The suburbanization of America, the way people embraced automobiles, and the fascination of America’s youth with fads in music and other forms of popular culture support the argument that these were not times of unchallenged cultural conformity but rather questioning that would lead to revolutionary challenges in 1968 when Americans questioned the containment policies of the Cold War and the domino theory that spread fears of a collapse of capitalism and democracy.

“Jimmy claimed he was not interested in what others thought of him. He did not need their approval or guidance, but he was concerned with his image. A little vain, he spent a lot of time in front of the mirror combing his hair and practicing his smile. He saw Elvis as his ideal, sported a leather jacket, and popped its collar. He enjoyed rock and roll, and western or action films. Like so many Americans in the postwar decades, he was an ardent fan of John Wayne. Jimmy was willing to conform, but he craved independence. A driver’s license and a car allowed him to escape briefly the suburban sprawl. He bought an old green truck with a big engine and a heavy frame. It had a broken passenger door, smelled of gasoline, and had little in the way of chrome fittings. When he drove his sisters to school, he kept the windows up because he wanted people to believe the truck had air conditioning. Jimmy drove the truck like a hot-rod-hard and fast.” (p. 49)

The decade of the Sixties is complicated for students to understand because it includes poverty and affluence, the civil rights movement, the space race, nuclear proliferation and non-proliferation, changing roles for women, a revolution in communications, and conflicts in the Middle East and Southeast Asia. It is also a complicated period for teachers to cover because they are faced with time constraints and deciding which resources are most appropriate for engaging students with inquiry, discussion, analysis, and the evaluation of theses relating to the causes and effects of America’s foreign policy decisions in Vietnam and Southeast Asia.

A second profound perspective in Everyman in Vietnam is the explanation of the culture of the Vietnamese and their struggle for national unity since the 14th century. For example, in reading the chapter about the flawed agreements of the Geneva Conference, students might search for evidence on the multiple theses if the Vietnam War was an issue of independence from the Chinese, Japanese, or French; if the conflict was about the national unity of the diversity of cultures (Amman, Cochin, Tonkin); or the spread of communism and socialism in a country dominated by extreme poverty from three centuries of colonialism and capitalism.

The information presented by the authors on the dates of the Japanese surrender on September 2, 1945; the proclamation of the recognition of the Viet Minh by the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949, and the surrender of the fortress at Dien Bien Phu on May 8, 1954 (9^th anniversary of V-E Day) gave me a new perspective of Ho Chih Minh, the importance of his travels to London, Paris, and New York in the 1920s and 30s, and how these historic events are turning points in Vietnam’s history and struggle for national unity.

“Ho began his brief but stirring address (before a massive crowd in Ba Dinh Square in Hanoi on September 2, 1945, V-J Day) with a quotation from the American Declaration of Independence. Abbreviating what he termed an ‘immortal statement’ from that earlier call to armed resistance against colonial tyranny, he declared: ‘All men are created equal. They are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.’ Ho’s decision to begin the Vietnamese Declaration of Independence with the most resonant passage from the preamble to the American one can be seen as cruelly ironic in view of subsequent history. His choice of American precedents was almost certainly in recognition of the cooperation – and the deep, mutual respect it engendered – between Vietnamese guerrilla fighters and the American Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) in the final stages of the war against the Japanese.” (p. 12)

Within the next six months, Ho sent President Truman a telegram dated February 28, 1946 with references to the principles of both the Atlantic Charter (1941) and the San Francisco Charter (1945):

“ON BEHALF OF VIETNAM GOVERNMENT AND PEOPLE I BEG TO INFORM YOU THAT IN COURSE OF CONVERSATIONS BETWEEN VIETNAM GOVERNMENT AND FRENCH REPRESENTATIVES THE LATTER REQUIRE THE SECESSION OF COCHINCHINA AND THE RETURN OF FRENCH TROOPS IN HANOI (STOP) MEANWHILE FRENCH POPULATION AND TROOPS ARE MAKING ACTIVE PREPARATION FOR A COUP DE MAIN IN HANOI AND FOR MILITARY AGGRESSION (STOP) I THEREFORE MOST EARNESTLY APPEAL TO YOU PERSONALLY AND TO THE AMERICAN PEOPLE TO INTERFERE URGENTLY IN SUPPORT OF OUR INDEPENDENCE AND HELP MAKING THE NEGOTIATIONS MORE IN KEEPING WITH THE PRINCIPLES OF THE ATLANTIC AND SAN FRANCISCO CHARTERS.” (Document, p. 13)

Although Secretary of State, George C. Marshall was critical of the French for their refusal to accept the realities of a postcolonial world after World War II, the economic importance of Indochina’s raw materials, rice exports, and rubber plantations, and opportunities for commercial development and investment shaped the fateful decision for ‘Crossing the Rubicon’ in the transformation of Vietnam into a future battleground that divided Americans.

The third perspective that influenced my inquiry as a reader of Everyman in Vietnam was the decision faced by students graduating high school to enlist or be drafted. I was a baby boomer and turned age 18 in the beginning of my third year of college (as a result of skipping a half year of kindergarten and seventh grade) and faced similar decisions until my Class IV deferment ended with college graduation. Just as high school students eagerly look for college acceptance letters in their mailbox or email Inbox today, many teenagers in the Sixties feared the announcement in the mail from the Selective Service Administration to report to their local draft board for a physical exam. There were choices for the young boys who graduated high school and were not enrolled in college. These included enlisting for four years with the hope of a placement in Europe, joining the Reserves or National Guard, applying for an exemption as a conscientious objector on religious beliefs, writing to one’s local congressman for preferential treatment, leaving the country, or applying for a medical deferment to avoid harm’s way.

The description provided in the personal letters of Jimmy Gilch to his best friend Gerry about his basic training at Fort Dix reveals the harsh reality of how the Army made boys into men. The experiences of basic training were not limited to the privacy of one’s family and as they were shared with others through conversation and visually illustrated on the nightly TV news, everyone understood how life in the military was different from the civilian life of rock concerts, beach weekends, drive-in movies, and ice cream sundaes at Dairy Queen!

“…I learned more about hand-to-hand combat today and boy can you really hurt a guy if you want too, but what the army is teaching is nothing to play around with, it doesn’t take much to hurt a person no matter what their size or weight, if you have good foot speed and fast moves it is hard to be beat, but the enemy is not just standing there singing. If you are slow when you come in contact with him [you’re dead]. but once you get him down you smash his head into the ground 7 or 8 times and give him the heel of your boot, then you decide how to finish dispose of him and that’s where I’m told the fun starts….” (p. 72)

In a letter to his mother at the end of his Advanced Infantry Training, Jimmy writes,

“Dear Mom,

…Too bad I did not know what I know now when I was home because I would have had more respect for both you and dad and the kid’s.(sic) I wish you made me study in school, and I wish you were a lot harder on me. Tell Georgie to leave the girls alone, he doesn’t know what it is like to be away. I’ve learned a lot that I would not otherwise have if I stayed in [Runnemede] all my life…thank god (sic) I found this out now while it is not too late. I would like to go back to school when I come out and make the family proud of me like I’m proud of dad and you and Georgie. I don’t see how dad kept the family like he does, I don’t blame him for being mad sometimes because he has a lot on his mind…and everything he tried to teach me I thought I knew, but I didn’t know anything. When I get out, I will really try my best to help instead of being a pain….” (p. 76)

The fourth fresh perspective in this book is in the analysis of the military strategies as a result of the information revealed in both the declassification of documents and the secondary sources of historians and authors over the past 50 years. The information about the tunnels, use of Armored Personnel Carriers, B-52s, helicopters, tanks, chemicals, and the nuclear option are informative and engage the reader in reflective thinking.

It is difficult for teachers and students to understand how our country won most of the battles in Vietnam but did not win the war. Michael Adas and Joseph Gilch provide an excellent analysis of America’s fragmented foreign policy in each presidential administration – Roosevelt (D), Truman (D), Eisenhower (R), Kennedy (D), Johnson (D), and Nixon (R). They also explain with strong documentation the frustration experienced by President Johnson regarding his agendas for civil rights and the Great Society with the escalating costs of the Vietnam War and the conflicting views of Clark Clifford (Chairman of the President’s Intelligence Advisory Board), Robert McNamara (Secretary of Defense), and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Although in 1966 the ratio was two American soldiers to one Vietnamese guerrilla, this was considered inadequate.

President’s Johnson’s frustration is expressed in an off-color analogy that he made following his deliberations at a meeting in Aspen Lodge at Camp David in the summer of 1966:

“If I left the woman I really loved – the Great Society – in order to get involved with that…of a war on the other side of the world, then I would lose everything at home. All my programs; all my hopes to feed the hungry and shelter the homeless; all my dreams to provide education and medical care to the browns and the blacks and the lame and the poor. But if I left that war and let the Communists take over South Vietnam…there would follow in this country an endless national debate – a mean and destructive debate – that would shatter my Presidency, kill my administration, and damage our democracy.” (p.96)

There are lessons for teachers and students to contemplate on the human and economic costs of the war, the stories of refugees who came to the United States, the work of military chaplains, the resilience of the Vietnamese people, and the reconstruction of Saigon and Vietnam from war to a 21st century productive economy. Teachers and students may also compare the experience of our military withdrawal from Vietnam with decisions in Afghanistan, Iraq, and now Syria. The Epilogue in Everyman in Vietnam provides a concise analysis preparing students for an informed discussion on the lessons of Vietnam in the big picture of 20^th century military conflicts involving the United States.

Jimmy Gilch died in combat in 1966 just a few weeks before he was to go on leave in Japan,

“On the night of July 20th, six days after the army terminated Operation Coco Palms, B Company was exhausted when they returned to Cu Chi. Nonetheless, it was again ordered back into the Filhol Rubber Plantation. Jimmy’s squad would head out the next morning….

The next morning B Company was ordered to start packing their APCs with C-4 explosives and antipersonnel mines….Jimmy and B Company left base camp at 0900, and entered the Filhol by late morning….they were hyper-alert as they continued into the Ho Bo Woods and around the village of Phu My Hung, which was a well-known, well-secured area that held two enemy hospitals, a fortified headquarters, and a training depot – all mostly underground. The Filhol area was notorious for hidden enemy entrenchments and snipers, who climbed high into the trees and hid in the foliage. The GIs in B Company expected to be ambushed, so they breathed a sigh of relief as the APCs maneuvered past ground that had claimed many of their friends.

But on the return trip, guerrilla forces ambushed B Company in the same place where earlier that afternoon they had dismounted their APCs and demolished an enemy entrenchment. The ambush began with small weapons fire from the earthworks one hundred meters away. An ammo box inside Lieutenant Jagosz’s APC was struck and exploded. Jagosz was knocked unconscious and pinned to the floor by falling ammo boxes. His driver was hit in the face by shrapnel and slumped over the gears, sending the track into reverse.

The VC had placed command-detonated mines all around the area. They also hung recycled US howitzer shells from low-lying tree branches, which they shot down on the approaching Americans….In an effort to flank the enemy, Jimmy and his third squad mates took it upon themselves to move their APC around the enemy trench line to support the units that were pinned down under fire. They were hoping their flanking maneuver would disrupt the enemy’s ambush long enough for A Company to arrive and repel the guerrilla’s assault. As their track moved across the trench, it was hit by a command-detonated mine. The blast set off several pounds of explosives stored in the overhead compartments. The hood covering their engine, weighing several tons, flew at supersonic speed through the air. The only thing left of the APC was the floorboard and the driver’s steering sticks. All seven soldiers aboard were killed instantly.” (Excerpts from pp. 189-191)

The book, Everyman in Vietnam by Michael Adas and Joseph Gilch, has information and insights for everyone